The effect of spray characteristics on the etching of invar alloy with FeCl3 solution

The objective of this study was to investigate the significant characteristics in the sprays of industrial etching nozzles for the sake of process design. The experiment was carried out with different spray pressures and industrial nozzles in the spray etching. Characteristics of the spray, such as the axial velocity and the Sauter mean diameter (SMD), were obtained through the Phase-Doppler Anemometer (PDA). The impact force was calculated through the spray characteristics. It was found that liquid with higher spray pressure resulted in a smaller SMD, higher droplet velocity, and greater impact force. The depth of etching was increased in the case of higher spray pressure. When the spray angle oscillated between 20° and −20°, the effect of etching remained constant. The relationships between the spray characteristics and the etching characteristics were analyzed. The depth of etching had significant, positive correlations with the axial velocity and the impact force. Four liquids of different kinematic viscosities were used to reveal the effects of the kinematic viscosity on the spray characteristics. The results indicated that a lower viscosity of the spray yielded a higher etching rate than a higher viscosity of the liquid. The results clearly show that the characteristics of the spray etching are strongly related to the spray characteristics with the spray conditions.     

A macro-microscopic investigation of high-pressure sprays injected by a common rail system

The main purpose of this research is to investigate high-pressure diesel oil sprays generated by a common-rail system through small nozzle holes. High-speed photography, phase Doppler particle analyzer (PDPA), and a combination of data obtained with high-speed photography and PDPA, based on the light extinction principle within sprays are used to deal with the objective. The sprays are characterised in an environment, which simulates in-cylinder air density of the actual diesel engine when the injection starts. However, it must be pointed out that isothermal condition at room temperature is considered and no-evaporation of drops occurs. A wide parametric study has generated evidence needed to quantify the influence of the common-rail pressure, nozzle hole diameter and environment gas density on the macroscopic evolution of sprays (spray tip penetration, and spray cone angle) as well as microscopic behaviour (spatial and temporal evolution of drop size, drop velocity and drop concentration distributions).     

The effect of non-orthogonal grids on spray and air flow predictions

This paper describes the effect of non-orthogonal grids on both spray and air flow predictions, and the effect of higher order convection scheme on inclined grids. In order to assess the effect of non-orthogonality of grids a number of different grid cases are generated, and applied to the same conditions of injected sprays. The effects on the free/wall spray penetration and Sauter mean diameter (SMD) are discussed. The results show that the numerical error is increased with increasing non-orthogonality, and that Hybrid is better than QUICK for the calculation of sprays on inclined grids. For the calculation of the spray injection, which has always large gradient regions at the front end, adaptive grids following the direction of spray/ gas flow might be required.     

Spray jet penetration and distribution of modulated liquid jets in subsonic cross-flows

Modulated liquid jets injected into subsonic cross-flows are empirically studied by using a mechanical liquid jet modulation apparatus. Experimental investigations were conducted using water over a range of cross-flow velocities from 5 m/s to 143 m/s and with modulated liquid jet frequencies from 35.7 Hz to 166.2 Hz and so on. PDPA(phase Doppler particle anemometry) was employed to measure droplet diameter and velocity with various spray cross-sections from Z/d=20 to Z/d=60. The spray structure, penetration depth, SMD(Sauter mean diameter), volume flux and velocity characteristics of modulated liquid jets injected into cross-flows were examined. As oscillation of the periodic pressure that could make liquid jet moved up and down in cross-flow field, the mixing process was facilitated. This phenomenon has the advantage of mixing the spray concentration from the center area to the outer area. Also, a bulk liquid jet puff was detected in the upper field of the liquid jet surface. The modulation effect appears significant in the extent of the spray oscillation. The correlation equations for the liquid jet boundary of the upper and lower regions which related to the Strouhal number have been presented to predict the spray structure under modulation conditions. Because of the modulation frequency, an inclination of averaged SMD for the structured layer was evanescent which contributed to the promotion of the macroscopic spray mixing process. Cross-sectional characteristics of SMD had the same tendency over a range of various modulation frequencies. As the modulation frequency increased, the region of volume flux distribution also increased.     

Phase doppler measurements: system set-up optimization for characterization of a diesel nozzle

A commercial phase Doppler system was set up, optimized and used to measure the time resolved characteristics of the droplets inside a diesel spray. The purpose of this work was to understand exactly the influence of each system parameter, and to find the best setup enabling measurements in the spray zones that are densest and closest to the injector. Parametric studies were performed to gain an understanding of the particle density limits of the system and their dependence on the system parameters. Then the diesel spray produced by a single-hole injector was measured, with the fuel pressure ranging from 300 to 1300 bar and gas density in the test chamber ranging from ambient conditions to 40 kg/m³. The optic parameters (beam waist size, lenses focal length) were chosen to the best expected values allowed by the optical stand-off of the spray enclosure. The receiver slit width, which was found to have a dramatic effect on the detection of droplets during the injection main period, was tested in the range from 100 μm to 25 μm. Tests were carried out with two different slit lengths, namely 1 mm and 50 μm, with results indicating minimal effect on performance. PMT voltage (gain) was held to a moderately low value between 400 and 500 V and the laser power between 400 and 800 mW in the green line. An optimum burst threshold was found to obtain the best quality data regardless of signal background level, which varies greatly in high-density pulsed sprays. In the end, a set of results from the complete nozzle characterization in various conditions is presented in order to show the practical application of the optimization study and to provide some means of appreciating the results accuracy. The results obtained were also used to show that the gas-jet theory can be used to predict if PDPA measurement are possible in a given experimental situation.     

Atomization characteristics in pneumatic counterfiowing internal mixing nozzle

In an effort to illustrate the global variation of SMD (Sauter mean diameter, orD ₃₂) and AMD (Arithmetic mean diameter, orD ₁₀) at five axial downstream locations (i. e., at Z=30, 50, 80, 120, and 170 mm) under the different experimental conditions, the radial coordinate is normalized by the spray half-width. Experimental data to analyze the atomization characteristics concerning with an internal mixing type have been obtained using a PDPA (Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer). The air injection pressure was varied from 40 kPa to 120 kPa. In this study, counterfiowing internal mixing nozzles manufactured at an angle of l5^o with axi-symmetric tangential-drilled four holes have been considered. By comparing the results, it is clearly possible to discern the effects of increasing air pressure, suggesting that the disintegration process is enhanced and finer spray droplets can be obtained under higher air assist. The variations inD ₃₂ are attributed to the characteristic feature of internal mixing nozzle in which the droplets are preferentially ejected downward with strong axial momentum, and dispersed with the larger droplets which are detected in the spray centerline at the near stations and smaller ones are generated due to further subsequent breakup by higher shear stresses at farther axial locations. The poor atomization around the centre close to the nozzle exit is attributed to the fact that the relatively lower rates of spherical particles are detected and these drops are not subject to instantaneous breakup in spite of the strong axial momentum. However, substantial increases in SMD from the central part toward the edge of the spray as they go farther downstream are mainly due to the fact that the relative velocity of droplet is too low to cause any subsequent disintegration.     

气旋耦合喷嘴喷雾特性研究

:对一种气旋耦合喷嘴喷雾特性进行了试验研究,分析总结了气液比及液相压力对其喷雾特性 的影响规律。试验中使用水为工质,利用工业相机对其液雾进行拍摄并利用 ＭＡＴＬＡＢ进行图像处理,获得 喷雾锥角,利用相位多普勒粒子分析仪（ＰＤＰＡ）对雾化粒径进行测量。研究表明,在液相压力一定时,随着 气液比增加,平行于预膜片方向喷雾锥角几乎不受影响,垂直于预膜片方向喷雾锥角先增大后略有减小;增 加液相压力,平行于预膜片方向喷雾锥角增大,垂直于预膜片方向喷雾锥角最大值和其对应的气液比减小; 气旋耦合喷嘴雾化粒径沿径向分布规律为中间雾化粒径较小向两侧逐渐增大;雾化粒径在液相压力较低时 受气液比影响大,随着液相压力增加受气液比影响减小。     

阀芯结构对双流体喷雾粒子特性的影响

为了研究阀芯结构对双流体喷雾粒子特性的影响,提升喷雾效果,运用相位多普勒粒子分析仪（PDPA）对不同阀芯结构的双流体喷雾雾滴粒径、轴向速度以及雾滴数目进行了测试,并对测量结果进行了分析和讨论。结果表明：随着轴向距离的增大,雾滴索特平均直径(SMD)、算术平均直径(AMD)呈先增大后趋于平缓的趋势,轴向速度以及湍流脉动速度均呈减小趋势,雾滴数目呈先增大后减小的趋势;随着气液压力比的增大,SMD呈先增大后减小的趋势,而AMD、轴向速度以及雾滴数目均呈减小趋势;阀芯的喉口直径、出口直径的减小均有利于喷雾效果的提升,但同时导致速度稳定性变差;当喉口直径为1.5mm、出口直径为2.5mm时,与原始阀芯结构相比,雾滴数目和雾滴轴向速度分别增大了82.43%和22.31%,SMD和AMD分别减小了52.18%和21.47%,综合喷雾效果得到了大幅提升。     

Spray characteristics on the electrostatic rotating bell applicator

The current trend in automotive finishing industry is to use more electrostatic rotating bell (ESRB) need space to their higher transfer efficiency. The flow physics related with the transfer efficiency is strongly influenced by operating parameters. In order to improve their high transfer efficiency without compromising the coating quality, a better understanding is necessary to the ESRB application of metallic basecoat painting for the automobile exterior. This paper presents the results from experimental investigation of the ESRB spray to apply water-borne painting. The visualization, the droplet size, and velocity measurements of the spray flow were conducted under the operating conditions such as liquid flow rate, shaping airflow rate, bell rotational speed, and electrostatic voltage setting. The optical techniques used in here were a microscopic and light sheet visualization by a copper vapor laser, and a phase Doppler particle analyzer (PDPA) system. Water was used as paint surrogate for simplicity. The results show that the bell rotating speed is the most important influencing parameter for atomization processes. Liquid flow rate and shaping airflow rate significantly influence the spray structure. Based on the microscopic visualization, the atomization process occurs in ligament breakup mode, which is one of three atomization modes in rotating atomizer. In the spray transport zone, droplets tend to distribute according to size with the larger drops on the outer periphery of spray. In addition, the results of present study provide detailed information on the paint spray structure and transfer processes.     

Spray characteristics of the rotating fuel injection system of a micro-jet engine

In micro-turbojet engines with less than 350 kW power, it is not easy to find a suitable fuel injector with good spray quality. However, the rotating fuel injection system can potentially provide high atomization quality without the high-pressure fuel pump through the centrifugal forces of the engine shaft. With this motivation, a very small rotating fuel injector with 40 mm diameter is designed for the micro-turbo jet engine. It is directly linked to a high-speed rotational spindle capable of a speed up to 100,000 rpm. The droplet size, velocity, and spray distribution from the PDPA (Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer) system are measured. The spray is also visualized by a high-speed camera. The test results show that the length of liquid column from injection orifice is controlled by the rotational speeds and that SMD (Sauter Mean Diameter) is decreased with increasing rotational speeds. At a rotational speed of 73.3 m/s (35,000 rpm), SMD is lower than 60 μm at the entirety of the measuring space in the case of Type 2 (injection orifice diameter of 1.5 mm) and Type 3 (injection orifice diameter of 2.2 mm). Therefore, conceptually, it is possible to apply this small rotating fuel injection system to the micro-turbojet engine combustor.     

Effect of nozzle geometry for swirl type twin-fluid water mist nozzle on the spray characteristic

Experimental investigations on the atomization characteristics of twin-fluid water mist nozzle were conducted using particle image velocimetry (PIV) system and particle motion analysis system (PMAS). The twin-fluid water mist nozzles with swirlers designed two types of swirl angles such as 0°, 90° and three different size nozzle hole diameters such as 0.5mm, 1mm, 1.5mm were employed. The experiments were carried out by the injection pressure of water and air divided into 1bar, 2bar respectively. The droplet size of the spray was measured using PMAS. The velocity and turbulence intensity were measured using PIV. The velocity, turbulence intensity and SMD distributions of the sprays were measured along the centerline and radial direction. As the experimental results, swirl angle controlled to droplet sizes. It was found that SMD distribution decreases with the increase of swirl angle. The developed twin-fluid water mist nozzle was satisfied to the criteria of NFPA 750, Class 1. It was proven that the developed nozzle under low pressures could be applied to fire protection system.     

Effects of ALR and configuration ratio on turbulent structures in swirling flows

To assess the significant physics associated with the increase of ALR and configuration ratio of the nozzle tip in pneumatic swirling flows, comprehensive observations using a 3-D PDPA system were experimentally carried out. Profiles of mean velocities, turbulence intensities, SMD variations, and correlations between droplet size and turbulence components were quantitatively acquired. As discussed in a previous literature, axisymmetric swirl angle of 30° is selected for this investigation because of its strong turbulence levels in the flowfield and finer droplet disintegrations. Various ALRs (Air-to-Liquid Mass Ratio) as well as the length-to-diameter ratios of nozzle tip as parameters were chosen. Due to the complex interactions in swirling flows under these variables, this experimental observation will be of fundamental importance to the understanding of turbulence structures. From the observations, it indicated that increasing the ALR causes the spray development to be positively fluctuated on the atomization in both axial and tangential RMS velocities. Also, it can be concluded that the SMD decreases continuously with increase of ALR, substantiating the fact that the fluctuations are inversely proportional to the SMD variation. Meanwhile, the spray behavior is characteristic with a reduction of length-to-diameter ratio; smaller the configuration ratio, the higher the turbulence intensities and smaller SMD variations in the flowfield.     

Gasoline spray characteristics impinging onto the wall surface in suction air flow

This study investigates the spray characteristics before and after wall impingingment of gasoline spray in suction air flow. For this study, a rectangular model intake port was made of acrylic glass, and suction air was generated by using the forced air blower contrariwise. The injector for this study was a pintle-type port gasoline injector in which an air-assist adaptor is installed to supply assisted air. A PDPA system was employed to simultaneously measure the size and velocity of droplets near the wall. Measured droplets are divided into “pre-impinging droplets” with positive normal velocity and “post-impinging droplets” were negative normal velocity for the suction flow. The velocities, size distributions and Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of pre- and post-impinging droplets for varions injection angles and air-assists are comparatively analyzed.     

Atomization characteristics of intermittent multi-hole diesel spray using time-resolved PDPA data

The intermittent spray characteristics of a multi-hole diesel nozzle with a 2-spring nozzle holder were investigated experimentally. Without changing the total orifice exit area, the hole number of the multi-hole nozzle varied from 3 (d_n=0.42 mm) to 5 (d_n=0.32mm). The time-resolved droplet diameters of the spray including the SMD (Sauter mean diameter) and the AMD (arithmetic mean diameter), injected intermittently from the multi-hole nozzles into still ambient air, were measured by using a 2-D PDPA (phase Doppler particle analyzer). The 5-hole nozzle spray shows the smaller spray cone angle, the decreased SMD distributions and the small difference between the SMD and the AMD, compared with that of the 3-hole nozzle spray. From the SMD distributions with the radial distance, the spray structure can be classified into the three regions : (a) the inner region showing the high SMD distribution; (b) the mixing flow region where the shear flow structure would be constructed; and (c) the outer region formed through the disintegration processes of the spray inner region and composed of fine droplets. Through the SMD distributions along the spray centerline, it reveals that the SMD decreases rapidly after showing the maximum value in the vicinity of the nozzle tip. The SMD remains the constant value near the Z/d_n=166 and 156.3 for the 3-hole and 5-hole nozzles, which illustrate that the disintegration processes of the 5-hole nozzle spray proceed more rapidly than that of the 3-hole nozzle spray.     

Twin spray characteristics between two impinging F-O-O-F type injectors

This paper presents twin spray characteristics of two impinging F-O-O-F type injectors in which fuel and oxidizer impinge on each other to atomize under the various conditions. The droplet size and velocity in the impinging spray flow field were measured using PDPA. The droplet size and velocity were investigated at the mixture ratios of 1.5, 2.0, 2.47 and 3.0 for four injectors in which two single F-O-O-F injectors were arranged at the intervals of 20.8, 31.2, 41.6 and 62.4mm respectively. In general, the arithmetic mean diameter, SMD and standard deviation of droplet size in the interaction area (X=0 andY=0mm) were smaller, while the axial velocity in the interaction area was slightly higher. An empirical correlation is obtained for the (D ₁₀) _D /(D ₁₀) _C value under the assumptions of two identical droplets and these with different size and velocity. The droplets with low Weber numbers below 40 have possibility to coalesce, while those over 40 tend to disintegrate after impingement in the interaction area.     

Assessment of a phase doppler anemometry technique in dense droplet laden jet

This study represents an assessment of the phase-Doppler technique to the measurements of dense droplet laden jet. High-pressure injection fuel sprays have been investigated to evaluate the use of the Phase-Doppler anemometry (PDA) technique. The critical issue is the stability of the phase-Doppler anemometry technique for dense droplet laden jet such as Diesel fuel spray in order to insure the results from the drop size and velocity measurements are repeatable, consistent, and physically realistic because the validation rate of experimental data is very low due to the thick optical density. The effect of shift frequency is minor, however, the photomultiplier tube(PMT) voltage setting is very sensitive to the data acquisition and noise in dense droplet laden jet. The optimum PMT voltage and shift frequency should be chosen so that the data such as volume flux and drop diameter do not change rapidly.     

Using momentum flux measurements to determine the injection rate of a commercial Urea Water Solution injector

The Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology allows the transformation of the Nitrous Oxide emissions present in exhaust gases into gaseous nitrogen and water. For a proper operation of the SCR, a urea-water solution (UWS) injector must dose an adequate amount of liquid into the exhaust pipe in order to avoid deposit formation and to guarantee the SCR system efficiency. This task requires the knowledge of the performance of the injector. Then, the goal of this work is to study the hydraulic performance of a UWS injector, by means of measuring the spray momentum flux in order to understand the influence of different variables as injected fluid, injection pressure, counter pressure and cooling temperature of the injector on the flow characteristics. The tested injector was cooled at three different temperatures, 60, 90 and 120 °C, the injection pressure of the UWS was set at 5, 7 and 9 bar, with counter pressures of 750, 900, 1000 and 2000 mbar for the two tested fluids, water and UWS. The measurements were carried out using an experimental facility developed at CMT-Motores Térmicos for the determination of spray momentum flux, where a piezoelectric pressure sensor was located near the nozzle exit of the injector, which measures the impact force of the spray. Additionally, the proposed methodology allowed to determine the injected mass flow and to capture the transient injection events, such as the opening and closing stages. Moreover, mass flow rate measurements of the injector were performed under the same operating conditions, determining the influence of the injection pressure, cooling temperature, counter pressure and fluid properties. Regarding the pressure, the tendency was as expected, the higher the injection pressure the higher the Momentum flux and flow rate. Results showed that an increment of the cooling temperature of the injector induces the appearance of flash boiling conditions, having an impact on the total injected mass and momentum flux, changing the behaviour of the spray. For the same conditions, water has a higher momentum flux than the UWS due to differences in fluid properties and velocity at the nozzle exit.     

Extraction of sizes and velocities of spray droplets by optical imaging method

In this study, an optical imaging method was developed for the measurements of the sizes and velocities of droplets in sprays. Double-exposure single-frame spray images were captured by the imaging system. An image processing program was developed for the measurements of the sizes and positions of individual particles including separation of the overlapped particles and particle tracking and pairing at two time instants. To recognize and separate overlapping particles, the morphological method based on watershed segmentation as well as separation using the perimeter and convex hull of image was used consecutively. Better results in separation were obtained by utilization of both methods especially for the multiple or heavily-overlapped particles. The match probability method was adopted for particle tracking and pairing after identifying the positions of individual particles and it produced good matching results even for large particles like droplets in sprays. Therefore, the developed optical imaging method could provide a reliable way of analyzing the motion and size distribution of droplets produced by various sprays and atomization devices.     

Swirl effect on the spray characteristics of a twin-fluid jet

In the liquid fuel combustion chamber, employed fuel must be atomized before being injected into the combustion zone. Therefore, the complete fuel atomization is the most important condition for the combustion efficiency. The atomization quality strongly affects the combustion performance, exhaust pollutant emissions, and flame stability. Therefore, the whole process of spray atomization is of fundamental significance. During past decades many experimental and theoretical studies in this field have been carried out and some improved results have been obtained. Two-phase atomizers, having a variety of advantages such as spray uniformity, appreciable atomization, and smaller SMD with an increase of ambient gas, are considered to be applied in various industrial processes. The purpose of present study is to investigate the mean velocity, turbulence shear stress, turbulence intensity, mean drop size distribution, and droplet data rate in a two-phase swirling jet using PDPA systems.     

An experimental study on the spray characteristics of a dual-orifice type swirl injector at low fuel temperatures

The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of fuel temperature on the spray characteristics of a dual-orifice type swirl injector used in a gas turbine. The major parameters affecting spray characteristics are fuel temperature and injection pressure entering into the injector. In this study, the spray characteristics of a dual-orifice type swirl injector are investigated by varying fuel temperature from — 30°C to 120°C and injection pressure from 0.29 to 0.69 MPa. Two kinds of fuel having different surface tension and viscosity are chosen as atomizing fluids. As a result, injection instability occurs in the low fuel temperature range due to icing phenomenon and fuel property change with a decrease of fuel temperature. As the injection pressure increases, the range of kinematic viscosity for stable atomization becomes wider. The properties controlling the SMD of spray is substantially different according to the fuel temperature range.