An ergonomics action research demonstration: integrating human factors into assembly design processes

In action research (AR), the researcher participates ‘in’ the actions in an organisation, while simultaneously reflecting ‘on’ the actions to promote learning for both the organisation and the researchers. This paper demonstrates a longitudinal AR collaboration with an electronics manufacturing firm where the goal was to improve the organisation's ability to integrate human factors (HF) proactively into their design processes. During the three-year collaboration, all meetings, workshops, interviews and reflections were digitally recorded and qualitatively analysed to inform new ‘actions’. By the end of the collaboration, HF tools with targets and sign-off by the HF specialist were integrated into several stages of the design process, and engineers were held accountable for meeting the HF targets. We conclude that the AR approach combined with targeting multiple initiatives at different stages of the design process helped the organisation find ways to integrate HF into their processes in a sustainable way.

Practitioner Summary: Researchers acted as a catalyst to help integrate HF into the engineering design process in a sustainable way. This paper demonstrates how an AR approach can help achieve HF integration, the benefits of using a reflective stance and one method for reporting an AR study.     

Ergonomics action research II: a framework for integrating HF into work system design

This paper presents a conceptual framework that can support efforts to integrate human factors (HF) into the work system design process, where improved and cost-effective application of HF is possible. The framework advocates strategies of broad stakeholder participation, linking of performance and health goals, and process focussed change tools that can help practitioners engage in improvements to embed HF into a firm's work system design process. Recommended tools include business process mapping of the design process, implementing design criteria, using cognitive mapping to connect to managers’ strategic goals, tactical use of training and adopting virtual HF (VHF) tools to support the integration effort. Consistent with organisational change research, the framework provides guidance but does not suggest a strict set of steps. This allows more adaptability for the practitioner who must navigate within a particular organisational context to secure support for embedding HF into the design process for improved operator wellbeing and system performance.

Practitioner Summary: There has been little scientific literature about how a practitioner might integrate HF into a company's work system design process. This paper proposes a framework for this effort by presenting a coherent conceptual framework, process tools, design tools and procedural advice that can be adapted for a target organisation.     

Motivation in software engineering industrial practice: A cross-case analysis of two software organisations

ContextThe research about motivation in software engineering has provided important insights into characterizing factors and outcomes related to motivation. However, the complex relationships among these factors, including the moderating and mediating effects of organisational and individual characteristics, still require deeper explanatory investigation.ObjectiveOur general goal is to build explanatory theories of motivation in different software organisations and to integrate these local theories towards a comprehensive understanding of the role of motivation in the effectiveness of the individuals and the teams in which they work. In this article, we describe the integrative synthesis of the results of two case studies performed with software organisations in different business contexts.MethodWe performed two case studies using a multiple-case, replication design, focusing on the software engineers as the unit of analysis. For 13 months, we conducted semi structured interviews, diary studies, and document analyses, and analysed the collected data using grounded theory procedures. The results of the two cases were synthesized using a meta-ethnography supported process.ResultsWe built translations of the concepts and propositions from the two studies into one another. We then used the translations to build a central story of motivation that synthesizes the individual stories. This synthesis is contextualized by the differences in organisational and individual characteristics.ConclusionThe differences in organisational contexts and in the characteristics of the software engineers in each study provided rich explanations for contrasts in perceptions and feelings about motivation in both organisations. The theory that emerged from the synthesis, supported by these explanations, provides a deeper understanding of the interplay between motivators and outcomes, and the needs and personal goals of the software engineers. This theory also characterises the role of team cohesion in motivation, advancing previous models about motivation in software engineering.     

Cognitive processes in engineering design: a longitudinal study

Abstract

In this paper we report an empirical study of the cognitive processes of semi-expert electronics engineers pursuing real-world design projects. Extensive diary and interview data were analysed so as to reveal the organization of on-going design activity and the goals that were motivating behaviour. Our analyses indicated that subjects were implementing a highly systematic design strategy which deviated only a small amount (12%) from a top-down, depth-first procedure. Some of this deviation could be accounted for by social demands impinging on the individual designer, and whilst there was also evidence of ‘opportunistic’ deviation from a structured design approach, this did not appear to be a significant feature of our subjects' behaviour. We present a model of the design process as a set of production rules which describe an abstract ‘design schema’ for electronic engineering. This design schema embodies processes which control and co-ordinate problem-understanding and problem-structuring activity as well as the essentially top-down, depth-first pursuit of design solutions. The schema also allows for flexibility in the design process, permitting subjects to cope with contingencies arising through social influences and performance breakdowns. A further aspect of the design schema is that it encapsulates a ‘satisficing’ procedure which reflects a principle that dominated our engineers' solution-search and evaluation activity—they characteristically focused exclusively on initial, satisfactory (but usually sub-optimal) solution concepts rather than comparing alternatives with the aim of optimizing choices. We conclude our discussion by recommending facilities that we feel computer-based design aids should offer users if they are to be genuinely useful adjuncts to design activity.     

Opportunities for meeting sustainability objectives

It is inevitable that theory and good practice in Human Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E) should comprise engineering for sustainability to safeguard ecology and maintaining the quality of life. There are immediate and longer-term opportunities for HF/E community to be a key contributor in solving sustainability issues. However, sustainability research in HF/E domain has only been partially explored. A further theoretical and practical contribution is needed. Digital Human Modeling (DHM) is a potential method to integrate human element into sustainability research. However, current DHM tools are limited in resolving these issues until sustainability objectives are explicitly considered. There are DHM tools available to evaluate human performance. However typically do not consider sustainability aspects of the work environment. This study introduces two conceptual digital ergonomics toolkits, Air Quality Index Assessment and Metabolic Energy Expenditure, to demonstrate the potential use of DHM in evaluating the health risks and worker's performance in work design. Incorporating human element into sustainability through DHM (digital ergonomics toolkits) reduces the need for in-situ human data collection and physical prototyping for work environments that are subject to poor air quality, toxic exposure and handling of hazardous materials. The DHM toolkits proposed in this study can bring attention towards building multidisciplinary collaboration that can enhance HF/E outreach goals in sustainability-related engineering design.Relevance to IndustryDHM can help industry to minimize the need of in-situ human data collection, reduce the need of physical prototyping, and optimize overall system performance for where subjects are exposed to poor air quality, toxic exposure, and handling of hazardous materials.     

A collaborative Design for Usability approach supported by Virtual Reality and a Multi-Agent System embedded in a PLM environment

This paper details a collaborative workstation design approach integrating knowledge based on engineering process, using a Multi-Agent System (MAS) on a Virtual Reality (VR) platform. The MAS supports R&D teams to extract and re-use engineering knowledge so as to improve their efficiency in developing new products. Our research targets the development of a knowledge engineering system integrated into a PLM-Product Life cycle Management-environment linked with virtual reality tools. A PLM is a strategic business approach with a consistent set of methodologies and software solutions. It is meant to promote collaborative creation, management, delivery and proper use of this life cycle definition and information product in multinational companies. This system is used by engineers to carry out projects in a collective way while conveying a defined process. The MAS allows capitalization, and to annotate knowledge according to the actions of the designers inside a PLM environment. Then, this knowledge is used by VR tools to analyze various aspects of the virtual prototype such as manufacturing, maintenance, reliability or ergonomics. Consequently, we use expert knowledge to pilot the design process of a virtual prototype inside a three-dimensional immersive virtual reality platform. In this context, our paper describes our knowledge management approach applied to improve ergonomics and collaborative design in industrial areas.     

Using a grounded theory approach to study online collaboration behaviors

This paper discusses how an interpretive theory of action was explored and developed through iterative cycles of grounded theory generation. We establish our motivation for employing the grounded theory method in an area that is overflowing with theories of learning, then move on to the practicalities of generating an interpretive grounded theory by following the ‘vapor trails’ left by online learners. We describe how we incorporated the use of mixed methods into an interpretive grounded theory process, with a theoretical sampling strategy that used ‘complementary comparison’ to feed back into a new cycle of constant comparison. We discuss how constant comparison may be enhanced by researcher debate around emerging themes and categories, co-coding of data samples, coding of researcher theoretical memos, and reflection-in-action during explicit explanations of coding schemes to research assistants and the review of research process memos. Finally, we discuss how and why the substantive theory of action that was generated by this process provides an original contribution to theories of collaborative online learning by accounting for both visible and invisible learning strategies that explain the role of thought-leaders in a community of inquiry and account for vicarious learning.     

Green ergonomics: challenges and opportunities

Addressing the causes and consequences of environmental degradation presents significant challenges for humankind. This paper considers what ergonomics/human factors (E/HF) professionals can contribute to understanding and tackling some of the issues that arise through the movement towards a more environmentally sustainable economy. These issues are considered in relation to work in green industries (specifically, sustainable energy production, recycling and organic food production), and there is a need to ensure that these jobs are safe and healthy; the design of products and systems that are ‘environmentally friendly’ to facilitate their acceptability and use and how E/HF professionals can contribute to understanding and promoting behavioural change relating to environmental choices. The activities of some international organisations in this area are identified and the potential for E/HF involvement is considered. The implications for the E/HF profession are discussed.

Practitioner summary: This paper considers how ergonomics/human factors professionals can contribute to the movement towards more sustainable and ‘environmentally friendly’ design and work. Potential challenges and opportunities are discussed in relation to jobs in green industries, products and systems and behaviour change.     

The use of semantic networks to support concurrent engineering in semiconductor product development

The design of semiconductor devices is an extremely complex and costly process. Numerous design and test iterations are typically necessary to finally complete a successful device. Competition in the industry has forced semiconductor manufacturers to reduce design cycle times and costs. One method now being used to accomplish these objectives is concurrent engineering. This paper will review how concurrent engineering is being integrated into semiconductor device development and how artificial intelligence-based models will support concurrent engineering implementation. Major changes are needed in design simulation, methods of knowledge sharing, and incorporating best practices. A semantic network is proposed that retains the knowledge of a product in a central repository as various engineers contribute to the product's development. The knowledge contained in this central repository can be referenced for applicability by engineers during product design, development, and production.     

An integrated architecture for simulation

‘The explosion in computer performance allows average engineers to use simulation as part of the design process’ and enables them ‘to search all possible design alternatives, and find the one that best meets the overall design criteria’ by performing hundreds of simulations rather than just one or two. Yet, ‘the advanced analysts resist the effort, concerned that it would be hard to get the correct answers.’ An integrated architecture for simulation is proposed in this paper, which reduces the effort required for finding of the correct answers through integration of the simulation package with data-management (DM) software. The integrated architecture is based on three elements: input/output (I/O) handling, autonomous operation and control. I/O handling is provided by an add-on interface constructed in the DM tool, taking advantage of the fact that simulation software tools are increasingly able to exchange information with other software tools in an integrated way. All user interaction with the simulation can be done via this interface—input data entry, triggering the execution of simulation runs, and analyses of the results, which are automatically transferred by the simulation and recorded in the DM tool. Autonomous operation allows the execution of batch of simulation runs in the background leaving the user free to engage in other activities. Control, beyond providing the means for autonomous operation, enables the inclusion of simulation within larger context such as simulation–optimization schemes. Consequently, the integrated architecture allows simulation to be ‘routinely applied as a powerful, flexible and general purpose engine for optimization from the initial concept across the full product life cycle’.     

Supporting process design for e-business via an integrated process repository

Business process design is an integral part of e-business engineering. Given that e-business models usually involve a wide range of business processes across different business functions with complex activities, events, and documents, process design for e-business is a very challenging task. Although various process reference models (PRMs) have been developed to provide guidelines for process design, research on leveraging multiple PRMs to support process design for e-business has been scant. In this paper, we demonstrate that the diverse process design requirements in e-business are best satisfied by utilizing multiple PRMs via a case study. Then, we propose a collaborative approach grounded in knowledge management theory to integrating multiple process reference models to better support process design in e-business. We equip the integrated process repository with a set of novel features based on Web 2.0 technologies to enhance its utility, efficiency, and quality for process design support. A prototype system is developed and user experiments are conducted to evaluate the system.     

Distributed collaboration for engineering design: A review and reappraisal

Collaborative manufacturing is aimed to increase the flexibility of design and production processes through multiple organizations pooling strengths on a product‐by‐product basis to create distributed collaborative corporations. These collaborations involve multidisciplinary, geographically dispersed teams of engineers who often communicate only through voice, video, or computer‐mediated interfaces. Utilizing sociotechnical theory as a framework, this article reviews multiple sources of literature on collaboration and interprets them in light of the collaborative engineering design process. A conceptual model of distributed engineering collaboration based on a sociotechnical theory framework is proposed to understand how technology changes both the social interaction and the technical design process. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Knowledge acquisition method for conceptual design based on value engineering and axiomatic design theory

A method for acquiring conceptual design knowledge in physical systems is proposed and implemented based on EBL (explanation-based learning), ‘value engineering methodologies’ and ‘axiomatic design approaches’. In this method, the structural features of designed objects are analysed to yield a systematic explanation of how they function and attain their design goals and why they are used for attaining the goals.The ‘how’ explanation results in a generalized version of the functional diagram used in value engineering from which various levels of general design knowledge can be extracted. The quality of the extracted knowledge is then discussed with reference to its mode of acquisition.The ‘why’ explanation yields a deeper understanding of the designed objects from which we can extract meta-planning or strategic knowledge for selecting rational plans from among other possible alternatives. This explanation is obtained by regarding the object in question as being the result of strategically rational decisions and actions which are subject to the ‘design axioms’.     

Questioning validity in the area of ergonomics/human factors

This paper focuses on the analysis of deviation in findings within ergonomics/human factors (E/HF) research. The current terms used to address the analysis of deviation in empirical research revolve around the notion of validity. In E/HF research papers, ‘validity’ is widely interpreted and includes its common parlance usage. More importantly, analysis frequently limits ‘validation’ to the equivalent of ‘verification’, eventually resulting in ‘validity’ as a label of little significance. To clarify the analysis of deviation, ‘investigative syntaxes’ are introduced to show what exactly should or can be questioned when deviation is observed, i.e. either empirical findings or propositions, and how this questioning can be structured. The possibility is discussed that, with or without the help of these syntaxes, validation may become a method of inquiry; a productive means of generating significant theoretical questions which bear directly on empirical work.     

Ergonomics action research I: shifting from hypothesis testing to experiential learning

This paper presents the case for the need for ‘Action Research’ (AR) approaches to gain understanding of how ergonomics considerations can best be integrated into the design of new work systems. The AR researchers work collaboratively with other stakeholders to solve a real-world problem: gaining insight into the problem and factors influencing solution building from an embedded position in the development process. This experience is interpreted in terms of available theory and can support further theory development. This non-experimental approach can help provide practical new approaches for integrating ergonomics considerations into real work system design processes. The AR approach suffers from a lack of acceptance by conventionally trained scientists. This paper aims to help overcome this weakness by developing the underlying theory and rationale for using AR approaches in ergonomics research. We propose further development of hybrid approaches which incorporate other evaluation techniques to extend the knowledge gains from AR projects.

Practitioner Summary: Researchers should engage directly with organisations in ergonomics projects so that they can better understand the challenges and needs of practitioners who are trying to apply available scientific knowledge in their own unique context. Such ‘Action Research’ could help develop theory and approaches useful to improve mobilisation and application of ergonomics knowledge in organisations.     

Rethinking positive and negative impacts of ‘ICT for development’ through the holistic lens of the sustainable development goals

ABSTRACT

The field of information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) is driven by the conviction that ICTs can be used to improve peoples’ lives. Yet, it often faces criticism related to the negative effects that are associated with ICTs. Instead of viewing these as arguments against ICT4D, this article presents an integrated approach to incorporating them in our conceptualization of ICT4D impact. For this purpose, we envision a framework that is grounded in the interrelated set of Sustainable Development Goals, which make the complex interdependencies between different development goals explicit. By mapping the potentially harmful impact of ICTs within this network of goals, this framework provides a point of reference for holistically conceptualizing ICTs’ negative impact through the lens of policy coherence. Based on this framework, this article discusses, how to conceptualize ICT4D impact, taking into account the multidimensional implications for the environmental, economic and social dimensions of sustainable development.     

A Strategy for Network Planning and Control

Abstract

Planning and implementing a data communications network is a complex task involving organizational as well as technical issues. The network design process must be integrated with the organization's business goals and strategies. Because network planning, implementation, and maintenance require skills not usually found in a batch-oriented DP environment, training is critical.     

The Use of Stories in User Experience Design

Stories capture the characteristics of the design space and audience that designers and engineers need to understand to build a complete and useful software experience. A story is a design communication tool that transcends the cultural divides of multidisciplinary teams and intertwines a technology with its user's goals. This article describes how stories are powerful tools in software design, defines the elements that make a compelling story, and presents the use of stories at IBM from the authors' experience. It also explores the benefits at each phase of the design process and how stories evolve throughout the design process.     

Time--a key issue for musculoskeletal health and manufacturing

Time is a key issue for both ergonomists and engineers when they engage in production system interventions. While not their primary purpose, the actions of engineers have major effects on biomechanical exposure; possibly of much greater magnitude than many ergonomics interventions. This paper summarises the aims, actions and tools of engineers and ergonomists, emphasising time-related outcomes. Activities of the two groups when attempting to manipulate time aspects of work may be contradictory; engineers wishing to improve production and ergonomists aiming at better health as well as contributing to production. Consequently, tools developed by ergonomists for assessing time aspects of work describe rest patterns, movement velocities or daily duration of exposures, while engineering tools emphasise time-efficient production. The paper identifies measures that could be used to communicate time-relevant information between engineers and ergonomists. Further cooperation between these two stakeholders as well as research on the topic are needed to enable ergonomists to have a larger impact on the design of production systems.