When paradigms collide at the road rail interface: evaluation of a sociotechnical systems theory design toolkit for cognitive work analysis

The Cognitive Work Analysis Design Toolkit (CWA-DT) is a recently developed approach that provides guidance and tools to assist in applying the outputs of CWA to design processes to incorporate the values and principles of sociotechnical systems theory. In this paper, the CWA-DT is evaluated based on an application to improve safety at rail level crossings. The evaluation considered the extent to which the CWA-DT met pre-defined methodological criteria and aligned with sociotechnical values and principles. Both process and outcome measures were taken based on the ratings of workshop participants and human factors experts. Overall, workshop participants were positive about the process and indicated that it met the methodological criteria and sociotechnical values. However, expert ratings suggested that the CWA-DT achieved only limited success in producing RLX designs that fully aligned with the sociotechnical approach. Discussion about the appropriateness of the sociotechnical approach in a public safety context is provided.

Practitioner Summary: Human factors and ergonomics practitioners need evidence of the effectiveness of methods. A design toolkit for cognitive work analysis, incorporating values and principles from sociotechnical systems theory, was applied to create innovative designs for rail level crossings. Evaluation results based on the application are provided and discussed.     

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Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) allows complex, sociotechnical systems to be explored in terms of their potential configurations. However, CWA does not explicitly analyse the manner in which person-to-person communication is performed in these configurations. Consequently, the combination of CWA with Social Network Analysis provides a means by which CWA output can be analysed to consider communication structure. The approach is illustrated through a case study of a military planning team. The case study shows how actor-to-actor and actor-to-function mapping can be analysed, in terms of centrality, to produce metrics of system structure under different operating conditions.     

Designing a ticket to ride with the Cognitive Work Analysis Design Toolkit

Cognitive work analysis has been applied in the design of numerous sociotechnical systems. The process used to translate analysis outputs into design concepts, however, is not always clear. Moreover, structured processes for translating the outputs of ergonomics methods into concrete designs are lacking. This paper introduces the Cognitive Work Analysis Design Toolkit (CWA-DT), a design approach which has been developed specifically to provide a structured means of incorporating cognitive work analysis outputs in design using design principles and values derived from sociotechnical systems theory. This paper outlines the CWA-DT and describes its application in a public transport ticketing design case study. Qualitative and quantitative evaluations of the process provide promising early evidence that the toolkit fulfils the evaluation criteria identified for its success, with opportunities for improvement also highlighted.     

Using team cognitive work analysis to reveal healthcare team interactions in a birthing unit

Cognitive work analysis (CWA) as an analytical approach for examining complex sociotechnical systems has shown success in modelling the work of single operators. The CWA approach incorporates social and team interactions, but a more explicit analysis of team aspects can reveal more information for systems design. In this paper, Team CWA is explored to understand teamwork within a birthing unit at a hospital. Team CWA models are derived from theories and models of teamwork and leverage the existing CWA approaches to analyse team interactions. Team CWA is explained and contrasted with prior approaches to CWA. Team CWA does not replace CWA, but supplements traditional CWA to more easily reveal team information. As a result, Team CWA may be a useful approach to enhance CWA in complex environments where effective teamwork is required.

Practitioner Summary: This paper looks at ways of analysing cognitive work in healthcare teams. Team Cognitive Work Analysis, when used to supplement traditional Cognitive Work Analysis, revealed more team information than traditional Cognitive Work Analysis. Team Cognitive Work Analysis should be considered when studying teams.     

On simultaneous control of the energy and actuated variables of underactuated mechanical systems – example of the acrobot with counterweight

The energy-based control approach aiming to control both the total mechanical energy and actuated variables of underactuated mechanical systems has generated renewed interest in recent years. Different from the reports of successful applications of this approach, we investigate whether there exists an underactuated mechanical system for which we fail to control both the total mechanical energy and actuated variable(s) to some given desired values by studying a CWA (Counter-Weighted Acrobot), which is a modified Acrobot with its first link having a counterweight and only its second link being actuated. By analyzing globally the solution of the closed-loop system consisting of the CWA and the controller designed via the energy-based control approach, we show that unless the CWA is linearly controllable at the up–up equilibrium, where links 1 and 2 are in the upright position, the controller fails to achieve the goal of controlling the energy to the potential energy at the equilibrium and controlling the actuated joint variable to zero. We also provide corresponding results for the up–down, down–up, and down–down equilibriums of the CWA, where up and down denote that the link is in the upright and downward positions, respectively. We present numerical simulation results to validate the theoretical results.     

Designing for operations: Towards a sociotechnical systems and cognitive engineering approach to concurrent engineering

In the practice of concurrent engineering, the factors that are considered early in the product design process include manufacturability, assembly, and cost. A set of issues that are not typically considered revolve around the operational requirements for human workers in the manufacturing system. What tasks will human workers accomplish? How will these tasks be organized and coordinated? What information and resources need to be shared? Will the workers have a coherent set of job responsibilities? How should the manufacturing environment be designed to support effective work practices? How can a manufacturing process be designed that also informs organizational structure and takes into account the quality of working life?

The field of sociotechnical systems theory (STS) focuses on exactly these kinds of issues. Rather than subscribing to the usual view of technological determinism — that a complex human-machine system is designed solely with respect to optimization of technical criteria — the goal of STS is to jointly optimize both human and technological considerations in system design and operation. The spirit of STS has much in common with recent work in cognitive systems engineering that advocates the design of joint cognitive systems in which machines serve as flexible, context-sensitive resources for human problem solving. Furthermore, a focus on design teams necessitates the study of the relationship between group work and technology as studied in the field of computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW). This paper briefly reviews current research in sociotechnical systems theory, computer-supported cooperative work, and cognitive systems engineering and proposes a framework for integrating operational concerns into the concurrent engineering process. Relevance to industry

To be competitive, organizations need to effectively manage human and technological resources. A key issue is the nature of the information and technological infrastructure that both enables and supports ‘best practice’ across the enterprise. This paper describes such an approach in the context of the ‘operational enterprise’ and provides both a philosophical stance as well as specific examples of software support.     

Using cognitive work analysis and the strategies analysis diagram to understand variability in road user behaviour at intersections

In this article, an application of cognitive work analysis (CWA), using the strategies analysis diagram (SAD) method, to model performance variability in road transport, is presented. Specifically, the method was used to describe performance variability across four road user groups (drivers, cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians) when turning right at an urban signalised intersection. The analysis demonstrated that the method was able to identify a comprehensive range of strategies that road users can potentially use while turning right at an intersection, thereby describing a range of performance variability within intersection systems. Furthermore, the method identified constraints, disturbances, changes in circumstances and other influences on road user performance variability. It is concluded that the CWA/SAD approach was able to describe both the different ways in which activities can be executed and disturbances, situations and constraints that create performance variability. The implications of these findings for road design and intersection safety are discussed along with the benefits and drawbacks of the methodology used.

Practitioner Summary: Recently, the strategies analysis diagram was proposed as a method to support the cognitive work analysis framework in modelling performance variability. This article evaluated this method within a complex sociotechnical system, namely road transport. The application provided insight into performance variability across road user groups when turning right at intersections.     

A sociotechnical approach to smart card systems design: an Australian case study

Sociotechnical theory represents an important frontier as an effective design tool for new technology. This paper suggests a working model for adopting the objectives of sociotechnical principles for smart card systems design. As an example, a case study based on the collective design practices of Australian firms known to be using smart card is presented. It is found that we are witnessing the birth of a new capacity of Australian firms to understand in a practical way, how sociotechnical knowledge can be applied. It is concluded that current smart card design practices of Australian firms are not responsible for the limited success of attempts by Australian firms to introduce smart card technology. Rather, it is suggested that there are good economic and organizational reasons why smart card acceptance and use in Australia may have been inhibited. Some important challenges that must be addressed have been noted.     

Accounting for memes in sociotechnical systems: extending the abstraction hierarchy to consider cognitive objects

Work domain analysis (WDA) is used to model the functional structure of sociotechnical systems (STS) through the abstraction hierarchy (AH). By identifying objects, processes, functions and measures that support system purposes, WDA reveals constraints within the system. Traditionally, the AH describes system elements at the lowest level of abstraction as physical objects. Multiple analyses of complex systems reveal that many include objects that exist only at a conceptual level. This paper argues that, by extending the AH to include cognitive objects, the analytical power of WDA is extended, and novel areas of application are enabled. Three case studies are used to demonstrate the role that cognitive objects play within STS. It is concluded that cognitive objects are a valid construct that offer a significant enhancement of WDA and enable its application to some of the world’s most pressing problems. Implications for future applications of WDA and the AH are discussed.

Practitioner summary: Some sociotechnical systems include memes as part of their functional structure. Three case studies were used to evaluate the utility of introducing cognitive objects alongside physical ones in work domain analysis, the first phase of cognitive work analysis. Including cognitive objects increases the scope and accuracy of work domain analysis.     

Sociotechnical principles for system design

This paper offers a set of sociotechnical principles to guide system design, and some consideration of the role of principles of this kind. The principles extend earlier formulations by Cherns (1976, Human Relations, 29, 783-792; 1987, Human Relations, 40, 153-162). They are intended to apply to the design of new systems, including those incorporating new information technologies and a range of modern management practices and ways of working. They attempt to provide a more integrated perspective than is apparent in existing formulations. The principles are of three broad types: meta, content and process, though they are highly interrelated. They are for use by system managers, users and designers, and by technologists and social scientists. They offer ideas for debate and provide devices through which detailed design discussions can be elaborated. The principles are most likely to be effective if they are relatively freestanding, but supported by relevant methods and tools. The principles are necessary but not sufficient to make a substantial contribution to design practice.     

Toward the incorporation of temporal interaction analysis techniques in modeling and understanding sociotechnical systems

The increased complexity of modern sociotechnical systems (STS) necessitates the need for a manageable representation of their attributes, to augment our understanding and enable the development of ways through which we can increase their effectiveness, efficiency, and safety. Although many of the methodologies developed in the Human Factors domain map and investigate system properties and network structures, the inclusion of the temporal dimension in the analysis of STS remains limited. In this paper we present how modeling and visualization of STS can be augmented with the incorporation of temporal interaction analysis techniques that enable a micro-level, fine-grained analysis of data. We provide an overview of temporal analysis techniques by breaking down their main function, requirements, types of research questions they can address, and the visualization properties they offer, attempting to enhance their use in system analysis. This overview can assist researchers in selecting an analysis technique, enabling the incorporation of temporality in STS analysis, and helping towards the design of improved and safer systems and interventions.     

Applying category theory to improve the performance of a neural architecture

A recently developed mathematical semantic theory explains the relationship between knowledge and its representation in connectionist systems. The semantic theory is based upon category theory, the mathematical theory of structure. A product of its explanatory capability is a set of principles to guide the design of future neural architectures and enhancements to existing designs. We claim that this mathematical semantic approach to network design is an effective basis for advancing the state of the art. We offer two experiments to support this claim. One of these involves multispectral imaging using data from a satellite camera.     

不确定时滞系统的全局鲁棒最优滑模控制

针对一类不确定性时滞系统, 研究线性二次型最优调节器的鲁棒性设计问题. 首先基于级数近似方法, 将原标称时滞系统的最优调节器问题转化为迭代求解一族不含时滞的两点边值问题, 从而获得标称时滞系统最优控制的近似解. 然后将滑模控制理论应用于最优调节器的设计, 使得系统对于不确定性具有全局的鲁棒性, 并且其理想滑动模态与标称系统的最优闭环控制系统相一致, 从而实现了全局鲁棒最优滑模控制. 仿真示例将所提出的方法与相应的二次型最优控制进行比较, 验证了该方法的有效性和优越性.     

Fault detection and isolation in nonlinear systems

This paper deals with fault detection and identification in dynamic systems when the system dynamics can be modeled by smooth nonlinear differential equations including affine, bilinear or linear parameter varying (LPV) systems. Two basic approaches will be considered, these apply differential algebraic and differential geometric tools.In the differential algebraic approach the state elimination methods will be used to derive nonlinear parity relations. In the specific case when a reconstruction of the fault signal is needed the dynamic inversion based approach will be investigated. This approach will also be studied from geometric point of view. The geometric approach, as proposed by Isidori and De Persis, is suitable to extend the detection filter and unknown input observer design approaches (well elaborated for LTI systems) to affine nonlinear systems.Beyond the development of the theory of fault detection and identification it is equally important to offer computable methods and to analyze the robustness properties against uncertainties. Both the observer based and the inversion based approaches will be elaborated for LPV systems that may offer computational tools inherited from linear systems and also allow to design for robustness utilizing results from robust filtering and disturbance attenuation.     

A rose by any other name...would probably be given an acronym [cognitive systems engineering]

In this article, we concern ourselves with characterizations of the "new" approaches to the design of complex sociotechnical systems, and we use a biological classification scheme to organize the discussion. Until fairly recently, the design of complex sociotechnical systems was primarily known as "cognitive engineering" or "cognitive systems engineering" (CSE), a term introduced to denote an emerging branch of applied cognitive psychology. A number of new terms have since emerged, all of which might be considered members of the genus "human-centered computing" (HCC). A number of varieties have entered the fray, resulting in an "acronym soup" of terms that have been offered to designate "the" new approach to cognitive engineering. Using the rose metaphor, and taking some liberties with Latin, this article is organized around a set of "genuses" into which the individual "varieties" seem to fall.     

Evaluating the generalizability of the Organizational Constraints Analysis framework: a hospital bed management case study

Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) provides useful tools for analyzing and modeling work constraints that can inform the development of systems design requirements. However, it does not provide effective tools for analyzing and modeling organizational constraints that can inform the development of organizational design requirements. By integrating organizational theories with the CWA approach, we developed the Organizational Constraints Analysis framework, a formative approach to the analysis, modeling, and design of the organization of work. In this paper, we test the generalizability of the framework by using its two analytical templates—the Organizational Constraints model and Work Possibilities diagram—to analyze the hospital bed management work domain. The research findings suggest that the concepts, investigative probes, and notations from the analytical templates can be applied to complex work domains beyond those in which it was initially developed. We conclude with suggestions for how the Organizational Constraints Analysis framework can complement CWA methods by helping researchers and practitioners develop a broader organizational perspective on the constraints that drive how work can be done in organizations.     

What could they have been thinking? How sociotechnical system design influences cognition: a case study of the Stockwell shooting

Understanding why an individual acted in a certain way is of fundamental importance to the human factors community, especially when the choice of action results in an undesirable outcome. This challenge is typically tackled by applying retrospective interview techniques to generate models of what happened, recording deviations from a 'correct procedure'. While such approaches may have great utility in tightly constrained procedural environments, they are less applicable in complex sociotechnical systems that require individuals to modify procedures in real time to respond to a changing environment. For complex sociotechnical systems, a formative approach is required that maps the information available to the individual and considers its impact on performance and action. A context-specific, activity-independent, constraint-based model forms the basis of this approach. To illustrate, an example of the Stockwell shooting is used, where an innocent man, mistaken for a suicide bomber, was shot dead. Transferable findings are then presented. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: This paper presents a new approach that can be applied proactively to consider how sociotechnical system design, and the information available to an individual, can affect their performance. The approach is proposed to be complementary to the existing tools in the mental models phase of the cognitive work analysis framework.     

ITAE最优控制系统设计

研究ＩＴＡＥ最优控制系统的设计问题。针对这类性能指标中含有绝对值的最优控制问题，先将镇定控制器参数化，再用Ｌ１理论将其转化为求解线性规划和代数方程。所得的控制器是有理的、线性的，易于工程实现。