A 16-year follow-up study of physical capacity in relation to perceived workload among ageing employees

The main purpose of this study was to ascertain musculoskeletal and cardiovascular capacity among ageing employees in relation to workload over a period of 16 years. The data were obtained by physical capacity tests and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during working day. The study group consisted of 89 subjects, who were all employed in the municipal branch and were on average 51.9 years old at the beginning of the follow-up period in 1981 and 67.3 years in 1997, when the most of the subjects had retired (with only two subjects still working). During the 16-year follow-up period, age-related decline in physical capacity was observed. Nevertheless the improvement in flexibility of spine and in isometric trunk muscle strength compared with the same age subjects was more common among the subjects with high workload than among the subjects with low workload. However, among the subjects with high workload, physical capacity was poorer than among the subjects with low workload, especially among the women. The results suggest the conclusion that there are differences in workers' physical capacity in relation to their perceived workload during working life. These differences remained when the subjects had retired. Interestingly, those who had high workload had lower muscle strength than those who had low workload. This may indicate that high physical workload does not have any training effect on the muscle strength of ageing workers.     

Workload and physical capacity among ageing municipal employees—a 16-year follow-up study

The main purpose of this study was to ascertain musculoskeletal and cardiovascular capacity among ageing employees in relation to workload over a period of 16 years. As the more specific aims were to find out firstly if the physical capacity was different among subjects who had high workload compared with subjects who had low workload and secondly if the changes in physical capacity during the follow-up period were different between subjects with high workload than among subjects with low workload

The data were obtained by physical capacity tests and field measurements (assessments of musculoskeletal and cardiovascular load). The study group consisted of 95 middle-aged subjects who were on average 51.9 years old at the beginning of the follow-up in 1981 and they were all employed. In 1997 they were 67.3 years and 93 of the subjects had retired. The sample represented workers who were employed in municipal occupations in different regions of Finland.

During the 16-year follow-up period age-related decline in physical capacity was observed. In general the subjects with low workload had better physical capacity than the subjects with high workload, especially among women. The improvements in physical capacity were more common than declines among subjects with low physical workload over the follow-up period. Among subjects with high physical workload the situation was mostly vice versa. However, the declines in isometric trunk extension strength and in aerobic capacity were more common among subjects with physically low workload than among subjects with high workload. The differences between high and low workload groups in physical capacity were larger among women than among men. It was concluded that physical workload seems to have more wearing effects than training effects on ageing workers.

Relevance to industry

Physically heavy work may have no training effect on physical capacity among aged workers. The physically heavy work has to be individually adjusted to correspond to a worker's physical capacity, bearing in mind age-related decline of physical capacity, and thereby preventing the overload of the worker.     

Distribution and determinants of maximal physical work capacity of Korean male metal workers

The distribution of maximal physical work capacity (MPWC) can be used to establish an upper limit for energy expenditure during work (EEwork). If physically demanding work has wearing effects, there will be a negative relationship between MPWC and workload. This study was conducted to investigate the distribution of MPWC among Korean metal workers and to examine the relationship between workload and MPWC. MPWC was estimated with a bicycle ergometer using a submaximal test. Energy expenditure was estimated by measuring heart rates during work. The study subjects were 507 male employees from several metal industries in Korea. They had a lower absolute VO_2max than the Caucasian populations described in previous studies. The older workers had a lower physical capacity and a greater overload at work. A negative relationship was found between MPWC and workload across all age groups. Upper limits for EEwork for all age groups and for older age groups are recommended based on the 5th percentile value of MPWC.     

An experimental evaluation of psychophysical criteria for repetitive lifting work

Two experiments were performed to test the reliability and validity of psychophysically determined maximum acceptable workloads for setting lifting standards. The perceived workload in a repetitive diagonal lifting task was found to be a positively accelerated function of the weight lifted and of the work pace respectively. A twofold increase in objective workload resulted in a four- to fivefold increase in perceived workload. This relation was independent of previous occupational experience of lifting work. The psychophysically assessed maximum acceptable workloads for this type of lifting task appeared to be satisfactorily reproducible when subjects had to adjust work pace or when they were left free to adjust both the weight and the work pace. However, the results raised several questions concerning the applicability of the psychophysical assessment of maximum acceptable lifting work. Slight changes in the instructions given to the subjects had a definite effect on the selection of workloads. Furthermore, the workloads selected by subjects with previous occupational experience of lifting work — i e, warehouse workers — were systematically lower than those selected by subjects without such previous experience — i e, office employees. At the same time, the warehouse workers rated perceived exertion higher than the office employees, indicating that previous occupational experience of lifting work enhanced the subjective assessment of physical effort. There were no consistent relations between the workloads found acceptable by the subjects and their physical characteristics and performance capacity.     

Job demands, physical fitness, work ability, and age of vehicle inspectors

The aim of this field, laboratory, and questionnaire study was to quantify and compare job demands, physical fitness, and work ability of aging (over 45 years) and young male vehicle inspectors. Dynamic and perceived job demands were moderately low, whereas static load on the neck-shoulder region was high due to bent and/or twisted head and neck postures which occurred at an average of 42% of working hours. Physical job demands were about equal for aging and young subjects. Aging subjects had lower aerobic and muscular fitness than young ones. A reduced work ability was detected in 14% of the aging inspectors. Technical and organizational measures are necessary to reduce static load and fixed repetitiveness of the job. Furthermore, individual physical training is recommended to maintain work ability of both the aging and young vehicle inspectors.     

Matching physical work demands with functional capacity in healthy workers: Can it be more efficient?

Objectives

To determine if functional capacity (FC) and physical work demands can be matched and to determine the validity of normative values for FC related to physical work demands as a screening instrument for work ability.

Methods

Forty healthy working subjects were included in this study. Subjects were categorized into four physical work demand categories (sedentary, light, moderate and heavy). FC was tested with a standardized Functional Capacity Evaluation (FCE) following the WorkWell Protocol and physical work demands were determined with an onsite Work Load Assessment (WLA) according to the Task Recording and Analyses on Computer (TRAC) method. Physical work demands were compared to FC and normative values derived from previous research.

Results

88% of the subjects scored higher on FCE than observed during WLA. The tenth percentile of normative values appeared valid in 98% for sedentary/light work for the subjects tested in this study. For moderate or heavy work, the thirtieth percentile of normative values appeared valid in 78% of all cases.

Conclusion

Functional capacity and physical work demands can be matched in most instances, but exceptions should be kept in mind with regards to professions classified as moderate or heavy physical work, especially concerning lifting high. Normative values may be considered as an additional screening tool for balancing workload and capacity. It is recommended to further validate normative values in a broader and more extensive working population.     

Effect of the number of two-wheeled containers at a gathering point on the energetic workload and work efficiency in refuse collecting

The effect of the number of two-wheeled containers at a gathering point on the energetic workload and the work efficiency in refuse collecting was studied in order to design an optimal gathering point for two-wheeled containers. Three sizes of gathering points were investigated, i.e. with 2, 16 and 32 two-wheeled containers at a gathering point. The collecting of two-wheeled containers was simulated in a test circuit. The energetic workload was quantified by the parameters oxygen uptake (l min⁻¹), heart rate (beats min⁻¹) and perceived exertion. The work efficiency was quantified as the time it took to collect 32 two-wheeled containers per time period. The maximum acceptable amount of two-wheeled containers collected during an 8-h working day was estimated using the energetic criterion of a maximum oxygen uptake of 30% VO_2max. The size of the gathering point had no effect on the oxygen uptake, heart rate or perceived exertion. However, the number of two-wheeled containers per collecting period (work efficiency) and the maximum acceptable amount during an 8-h working day were higher in the conditions with 16 and 32 two-wheeled containers at a gathering point compared to the condition with the 2 two-wheeled containers at a gathering point.     

A four-year follow-up study of physical working conditions and perceived mental and physical strain among food industry workers

This study hypothesized that in a longitudinal setting deteriorating physical working conditions increases the perceived physical and mental strain among food processing employees. The study was conducted in 2003 and 2007. It examined 248 blue-collar workers, all of whom were in the same occupation throughout the entire follow-up period. The data were obtained through a structural questionnaire distributed to the employees at the workplace. Mental strain had increased (7%) significantly among younger employees during the follow-up. The changes in mental strain for the younger employees were positively associated with the changes in physical strain. The changes in physical strain were also significantly associated with the changes in physical working conditions among both younger and the older workers. The results of this study partly support the study hypothesis, namely that deteriorating physical working condition increases physical strain and also increases mental strain, especially among younger employees.     

Life-time occupational exposure to heavy work and individual physical capacity

The aim of the present study was to retrospectively analyze the effect of occupational physical activity on maximal isometric hand grip strength and maximal oxygen consumption among males and females between 19 and 64 years of age in different occupations. A life-time occupational physical activity index was formed from questions in a questionnaire. The maximal isometric hand grip strength was measured with a dynamometer and maximal oxygen consumption was estimated from a submaximal bicycle ergometer test. The results showed a negative correlation between physical activity and estimated maximal oxygen consumption among males but no other statistically significant associations between life-time physical activity and the present physical capacity was found. The present results suggest that a high level of occupational physical activity does not maintain individual physical capacity.     

The effect of a resistance-training program on muscle strength, physical workload, muscle fatigue and musculoskeletal discomfort: An experiment

The aim of the study was to investigate the effectiveness of a resistance-training program on muscle strength of the back and neck/shoulder muscles, relative physical workload, muscle fatigue and musculoskeletal discomfort during a simulated assembly and lifting task. Twenty-two workers were randomized over an 8-week resistance-training group, and a control group. Isokinetic muscle strength was assessed using the Cybex dynamometer, muscle fatigue was measured using EMG, and perceived discomfort was measured using a 10-point scale. At the follow-up, we found no effect of the resistance-training program on isokinetic muscle strength of the back and shoulder muscles. Furthermore, we did not find any effect on EMG data, nor on musculoskeletal discomfort during the simulated work tasks. However, trained workers performed the lifting tasks for a longer time before reporting considerable discomfort than those in the control group.     

Workload and psychophysiological stress reactions in air traffic controllers

Interactions between workload and psychophysiological stress symptoms were investigated in a population of 205 predominantly male air traffic controllers (ATCs) from the area control centre (ACC) and the airport control tower (TWR) in Zurich and Geneva. Each subject completed two questioning sessions and two working sessions, the first time during a period of low traffic and the second time during a period of high traffic. For the questioning sessions standardized questionnaires were used. For all investigated working sessions, different aspects of the subjective and objective workload were recorded. Before and after each session, a saliva sample for assessing the concentration of secreted cortisol was taken. The questionnaire parameters represented psychological stress symptoms, such as complaints of physical discomfort, depression, negative self-communication, work-increased anxiety, coping behaviour and subjective rating, and interpretation of various aspects of the working situation. The mean values measured were within the normal range, and only a few significant differences between the two questioning sessions were found. However, about 10 to 15% of the ATCs showed elevated values in psychological stress symptoms to an extent indicating that they might have serious stress problems at work and/or in their private life. The investigated working sessions showed that the ATCs' subjective ratings correspond clearly to their cortisol response and the objective workload. Thus, ATCs' complaints regarding excess work stress should be taken seriously.     

Physical Workload in Different Body Postures,While Working Near to,or Below Ground Level

The physical load of different working postures during a light job at low working level was compared while varying the frequency of forward movement and working level. The postures compared were bending, kneeling, squatting and sitting on a low stool. Energy expenditure, heart rate and the increase in heart rate over a five minutos' period were used as parameters. The following conclusions can be drawn. Bending and kneeling require less energy and arc less strenuous, when one hand (arm) is used as a support to balance the trunk. At high forward movement frequencies (more than 4 metres per minute or 5 movements per minute) the bending posture without arm support is loss strenuous than squatting and sitting on a one-legged stool. At low movements frequencies the squatting posture is preferable. Heart rate and energy consumption were slightly higher than that when sitting, but performance and also the gradient of the heart rate were slightly more favourable. The working height, varied from ? 14 cm to + 16 cm in comparison with the floor level, influenced the workload less. A remarkable increase in the work load was observed in the bending position only when the working level was lower than the level of the feet. If work has to be carried out in the ground itself, then squatting appears to be the most favourable position.     

Associations between work ability, health-related quality of life, physical activity and fitness among middle-aged men

The Work ability of ageing work force is a matter of major concern in many countries. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived work ability and health-related quality of life (HRQoL), and to investigate their associations with age, physical activity and physical fitness in middle-aged men working in blue-collar occupations. The study population consisted of 196 middle-aged (aged 40-60 years) men (construction and industrial work) attending occupationally orientated early medical rehabilitation. They were mostly healthy having only symptoms of musculoskeletal or psychological strain. Perceived work ability was assessed with the work ability index (WAI) and HRQoL with the Rand, 36-item health survey (Rand-36). Information on physical activity was obtained with a structured questionnaire. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated with a submaximal exercise test on a cycle-ergometer. The WAI was significantly (p<0.001) associated with the total score of Rand-36, and with all its domains. Age, physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness were neither associated with the WAI, nor did physical activity predict any of the dimensions of Rand-36. Cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with the physical functioning dimension of the Rand-36 whilst age was positively associated with the dimensions of the energy, emotional well being and social functioning of the Rand-36. The present study on middle-aged men showed a close relationship between perceived work ability and the HRQoL. It is suggested that the promotion of work ability may have beneficial effects on quality of life.     

Short-Term Physiological Strain and Recovery among Employees Working with Agile and Lean Methods in Software and Embedded ICT Systems

Agile work practices have become popular. Although they hold great promise regarding well-being at work, systematic scientific research on this connection is scarce. This article aims to capture the current situation by measuring the state of mental workload using physiological indicators and by comparing high and low perceived agile work. Is the agile way of working associated with well-being at work? Three software teams and four embedded development teams were used in the different phases of applying agile methods. We conducted a baseline survey on perceived agile work in the team and carried out physiological measurements three times in a working period. Repeated-measure procedure was used to analyze the effects. The results provide evidence that agile work could even out workload during a working period, i.e. maintain sustainable pace. The results of the low agile work were in line with the assumption that work will accumulate at the end of the period because of loose planning and a lack of frequent checking. Therefore, workers also felt more strain from the pressure of deadlines.     

Reasons for adopting technological innovations reducing physical workload in bricklaying

In this paper the adoption of technological innovations to improve the work of bricklayers and bricklayers' assistants is evaluated. Two studies were performed among 323 subjects to determine the adoption of the working methods, the perceived workload, experiences with the working methods, and the reasons for adopting the working methods. Furthermore, a comparison of the results of the studies was made with those of two similar studies in the literature. The results show that more than half of the sector adopted the innovations. The perceived workload was reduced. The employees and employers are satisfied with the working methods and important reasons for adoption were cost/benefit advantages, improvement of work and health, and increase in productivity. Problems preventing the adoption were the use of the working methods at specific sites, for instance in renovation work. The adoption of the new working methods could perhaps have been higher or faster if more attention had been paid to the active participation of bricklayers and bricklayers' assistants during the development of the new working methods and to the use of modern media techniques, such as the Internet and CD/DVD.     

Reasons for adopting technological innovations reducing physical workload in bricklaying

In this paper the adoption of technological innovations to improve the work of bricklayers and bricklayers' assistants is evaluated. Two studies were performed among 323 subjects to determine the adoption of the working methods, the perceived workload, experiences with the working methods, and the reasons for adopting the working methods. Furthermore, a comparison of the results of the studies was made with those of two similar studies in the literature. The results show that more than half of the sector adopted the innovations. The perceived workload was reduced. The employees and employers are satisfied with the working methods and important reasons for adoption were cost/benefit advantages, improvement of work and health, and increase in productivity. Problems preventing the adoption were the use of the working methods at specific sites, for instance in renovation work. The adoption of the new working methods could perhaps have been higher or faster if more attention had been paid to the active participation of bricklayers and bricklayers' assistants during the development of the new working methods and to the use of modern media techniques, such as the Internet and CD/DVD.     

Loafing in the digital age: The role of computer mediated communication in the relation between perceived loafing and group affective outcomes

Virtual work has become an increasingly central practice for the organization of the 21st century. While effective virtual workgroups can create synergies that boost innovation and performance, ineffective workgroups become a great burden for organizations. Empirical research has shown that some negative behaviors, such as social loafing, negatively influence a group’s affective outcomes, in both collocated (face-to-face) and virtual workgroups. In this study, we explore if working through low fidelity computer mediated communication (CMC) increases the negative impact of perceived loafing over cohesion and work satisfaction. On this rationale, we conducted a laboratory study with 44 groups of four members each, who worked on a project in four sessions over a one-month period, in either face-to-face or low fidelity CMC conditions. Results show that the communication media condition moderates the effect of perceived loafing in the expected direction, meaning that, in the low fidelity CMC condition perceived loafing had an increased negative effect on group cohesion and satisfaction with the work process and its results.     

Relation between perceived and measured workload obtained by long-term inclinometry among dentists

Dentists reported high perceived physical work conditions. Working postures and movements of the head and upper extremities during dental work were registered with inclinometry measurements during four hours. The aim was to clarify the relationship between measured working postures/movements and perceived physical work conditions. Dentists worked with elevated arms and a rather steep forward inclination of the head. Correlations (r = −0.52 to -0.66) between inclination velocity and perceived workload on VAS scales were found, but there were only weak correlations between observed working postures. The different tasks involved in dental work provide limited variation in work movements and postures, measured by inclinometry. By alternating between sitting and standing, it might be possible to achieve variation in physical workload during dental work.     

Age differences in perceived workload across a short vigil

The main objective of this research was to investigate age differences in the perceived workload associated with the performance of a demanding, high event rate, vigilance task. Younger participants (n=26) aged 16 to 35 years (M=27.8) and older participants (n=24) aged 45 to 65 years (M=52.2) completed perceived workload scales (NASA-TLX) following a brief practice session (pretest) on the vigilance task, and then again following a test session (posttest) lasting nine minutes. In relation to the vigilance task, a statistically significant performance decrement was identified, but there was no evidence that performance differed according to age in respect to that decrement. However, a dissociation was found in relation to the perceived workload ratings: while no age differences were found in vigilance performance, the workload ratings revealed older participants to perceive a significantly greater increase in workload from pretest to posttest. These findings are considered theoretically in relation to the demands placed upon attentional resources, and their implications for both laboratory-based vigilance research, and workplace systems monitoring situations, are discussed.     

Age differences in perceived workload across a short vigil

The main objective of this research was to investigate age differences in the perceived workload associated with the performance of a demanding, high event rate, vigilance task. Younger participants (n=26) aged 16 to 35 years (M=27.8) and older participants (n=24) aged 45 to 65 years (M=52.2) completed perceived workload scales (NASA-TLX) following a brief practice session (pretest) on the vigilance task, and then again following a test session (posttest) lasting nine minutes. In relation to the vigilance task, a statistically significant performance decrement was identified, but there was no evidence that performance differed according to age in respect to that decrement. However, a dissociation was found in relation to the perceived workload ratings: while no age differences were found in vigilance performance, the workload ratings revealed older participants to perceive a significantly greater increase in workload from pretest to posttest. These findings are considered theoretically in relation to the demands placed upon attentional resources, and their implications for both laboratory-based vigilance research, and workplace systems monitoring situations, are discussed.