Designing sustainable work systems: The need for a systems approach

There is a growing discussion concerning sustainability. While this discussion was at first mainly focused on a society level – and sometimes regarding especially environmental problems, one can now see that this topic is of increasing relevance for companies worldwide and even the social dimension of this three pillar approach is gaining more and more importance. This leads to some questions: Is sustainability already a part of human factors thinking or do we have to further develop our discipline? How can we define sustainable work systems? What are the topics we have to consider? Do we need a new systems ergonomics perspective regarding whole value creation chains and a life-cycle perspective concerning products (and work systems)? How can we deal with potential contradictions about social, ecological, and economic goals?     

A systems ergonomics analysis of the Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells infection outbreaks

This paper describes a systems ergonomics analysis of the recent outbreaks of Clostridium difficile, which occurred over the period 2005–07 within the UK Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust. The analysis used documents related to the outbreak, alongside the construction of a system model in order to probe deeper into the nature of contributory factors within the Trust. The findings from the analysis demonstrate the value of looking further at cross-level and whole-system aspects of infection outbreaks. In particular, there is a need for further study of the causal relationships that exist between hospital management and clinical management levels within the system. Finally, the paper discusses ways forward and strategies that could be adopted in order to limit the outbreak of hospital-related infections and shape future research. The approach used for the system analysis described in the paper could be used by healthcare practitioners and ergonomists to probe deeper into the causes of infection outbreaks and to extend the scope of interventions aimed at preventing their occurrence.     

Cost-benefit analysis of a socio-technical intervention in a Brazilian footwear company

This article presents a costs-benefits analysis of a macroergonomic intervention in a Brazilian footwear company. Comparing results of a pilot line (composed by 100 multiskilled workers organized in teams) with eight traditional lines (still working in a one human being/one task model) the intervention showed to be worth pursuing since achieved gains were higher than intervention costs: there was a reduction in human resource costs (80% reduction in industrial accidents, 100% reduction in work-related musculoskeletal disorders or WMSD, medical consultations and turnover, and a 45.65% reduction in absenteeism) and production improvement (productivity increased in 3% and production waste decrease to less than 1%). The net intervention value of the intervention was around U$ 430,000 with a benefit-to-cost ratio of 7.2. Moreover, employees who worked in the pilot line understood that their quality of work life improved, compensating the anxiety brought up by the radical changes implemented.     

A critical review of the systems approach within patient safety research

The application of concepts, theories and methods from systems ergonomics within patient safety has proved to be an expanding area of research and application in the last decade. This paper aims to take a step back and examine what types of research have been conducted so far and use the results to suggest new ways forward. An analysis of a selection of the patient safety literature suggests that research has so far focused on human error, frameworks for safety and risk and incident reporting. The majority of studies have addressed system concerns at an individual level of analysis with only a few analysing systems across multiple system boundaries. Based on the findings, it is argued that future research needs to move away from a concentration on errors and towards an examination of the connections between systems levels. Examples of how this could be achieved are described in the paper. The outcomes from the review of the systems approach within patient safety provide practitioners and researchers within health care (e.g. the UK National Health Service) with a picture of what types of research are currently being investigated, gaps in understanding and possible future ways forward.     

Fitting methods to paradigms: are ergonomics methods fit for systems thinking?

Abstract

The issues being tackled within ergonomics problem spaces are shifting. Although existing paradigms appear relevant for modern day systems, it is worth questioning whether our methods are. This paper asks whether the complexities of systems thinking, a currently ubiquitous ergonomics paradigm, are outpacing the capabilities of our methodological toolkit. This is achieved through examining the contemporary ergonomics problem space and the extent to which ergonomics methods can meet the challenges posed. Specifically, five key areas within the ergonomics paradigm of systems thinking are focused on: normal performance as a cause of accidents, accident prediction, system migration, systems concepts and ergonomics in design. The methods available for pursuing each line of inquiry are discussed, along with their ability to respond to key requirements. In doing so, a series of new methodological requirements and capabilities are identified. It is argued that further methodological development is required to provide researchers and practitioners with appropriate tools to explore both contemporary and future problems.

Practitioner Summary: Ergonomics methods are the cornerstone of our discipline. This paper examines whether our current methodological toolkit is fit for purpose given the changing nature of ergonomics problems. The findings provide key research and practice requirements for methodological development.     

Macroergonomics: analysis and design of work systems

Attending to the larger system components such as organizational design and management is not novel for ergonomists. In Europe, there has been a strong tradition to investigate ergonomic problems within a holistic, systems context. "Macroergonomics" builds upon this tradition by providing specific methods and tools that yield large-scale results. It is believed that meaningful and large-scale results are needed in today's competitive and turbulent work environments. Macroergonomics is defined, its history is uncovered and focus is given to a key methodology, macroergonomic analysis and design. Case studies are used to validate the method and illustrate that performance results in the 60-90% range can be expected.     

Ergonomics in the development and implementation of organisational strategy for sustainability

This is the first phase of an ergonomics study of sustainability in a rail organisation, particularly environmental sustainability. The main emphasis has been on the use of a qualitative approach to carry out in-depth consultation with those in influential and policy setting roles in the organisation, collecting and analysing perceptions on sustainability policy and related business processes. The study identified factors affecting implementation of policy on sustainability and these have been developed to produce a list of requirements for implementing the policy. The findings are valuable in understanding the range of attitudes, aspirations and perceived constraints, from the perspective of those in senior roles in the company, and development of a sustainability strategy for a rail infrastructure owner. There is need for wider consultation, both within the organisation and externally, to validate and refine the understanding of barriers to the implementation of the policy. The role of ergonomics in supporting the work on sustainability is discussed.

Practitioner Summary: The study collects in-depth views from senior managers on the challenges of implementing a policy on sustainability in a rail organisation. Outputs include a list of factors affecting implementation of policy and requirements for better implementation of policy in this area. Potential contributions of ergonomics to sustainability in organisational contexts are discussed.     

The Extra Load Index as a method for comparing the relative economy of load carriage systems

The Extra Load Index (ELI) has been proposed as a suitable method of assessing the relative economy of load carriage systems. The purpose of this study was to determine, based on empirical evidence, that the ELI can accommodate variations in both body composition and added load. In total, 30 women walked carrying loads of up to 70% body mass at self-selected walking speeds whilst expired air was collected. In addition, each of the women had body composition assessed via dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results show that the ELI is independent of body composition variables, the magnitude of additional loads and the speed of progression. Consequently, it is suggested that it represents an appropriate method of comparing load carriage systems in both scientific and commercial arenas.

Statement of Relevance:This paper demonstrates that ELI is independent of body composition, added load and speed and is therefore an appropriate method to generalise comparisons of load carriage systems. It has the advantage of being easily understood by manufacturers and consumers whilst retaining appropriate scientific precision.     

A socio-technical analysis of functional properties in a joint cognitive system: a case study in an aircraft cockpit

Abstract

In a socio-technical work domain, humans, device interfaces and artefacts all affect transformations of information flow. Such transformations, which may involve a change of auditory to visual information & vice versa or alter semantic approximations into spatial proximities from instruments readings, are generally not restricted to solely human cognition. This paper applies a joint cognitive system approach to explore a socio-technical system. A systems ergonomics perspective is achieved by applying a multi-layered division to transformations of information between, and within, human and technical agents. The approach uses the Functional Resonance Analysis Method (FRAM), but abandons the traditional boundary between medium and agent in favour of accepting aircraft systems and artefacts as agents, with their own functional properties and relationships. The joint cognitive system perspective in developing the FRAM model allows an understanding of the effects of task and information propagation, and eventual distributed criticalities, taking advantage of the functional properties of the system, as described in a case study related to the cockpit environment of a DC-9 aircraft.

Practitioner Summary: This research presents the application of one systemic method to understand work systems and performance variability in relation to the transformation of information within a flight deck for a specific phase of flight. By using a joint cognitive systems approach both retrospective and prospective investigation of cockpit challenges will be better understood.

Abbreviations: ATC: air traffic control; ATCO: air traffic controller; ATM: air traffic management; CSE: cognitive systems engineering; DSA: distributed situation awareness; FMS: flight management system; FMV: FRAM model visualize; FRAM: functional resonance analysis method; GF: generalised function; GW: gross weight; HFACS: human factors analysis and classification system; JCS: joint cognitive systems; PF: pilot flying; PNF: pilot not flying; SA: situation awareness; SME: subject matter expert; STAMP: systems theoretic accident model and processes; VBA: visual basic for applications; WAD: work-as-done; WAI: work-as-imagined; ZFW: zero fuel weight     

A tool for visualizing the execution of interactions on a loosely-coupled distributed system

The paper describes in detail the implementation of INMON, a prototype monitor for recording and displaying interaction networks. The interaction network is designed to show the interrelationships between significant events that occur during the processing of an interaction on a loosely-coupled distributed system. By being directed at analysing what happens in an interaction, this approach is fundamentally different from other graphical representations that show what happens during the execution of a single program on a distributed system. Examples are given of interaction networks recorded by INMON. The approach is based on very general models of a distributed system and of an interaction, and could be widely applied. We conclude by summarizing what is needed to provide facilities within any operating system for recording interaction networks.     

The effects of joint torque, pace and work:rest ratio on powered hand tool operations

Repetitive use of hand-held power tools is associated with work-related upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders. Using a pneumatic nutrunner, 21 men completed twelve 360 repetitive fastener-driving sessions on three joints (hard, soft and control) at slow and fast pace, and two different work:rest patterns. Handgrip force and perceived exertions were collected throughout each session. For the control joint, the mean grip force exerted was 39.6% of maximum voluntary exertion (MVE) whereas during hard and soft joint sessions it was 48.9% MVE and 56.9% MVE, respectively. Throughout each session, the grip force decreased, more while operating soft and hard joints as compared with the control joint (regression slope: ?0.022 and ?0.023, compared with ?0.007 N/drive, respectively), suggesting considerable upper extremity muscular effort by participants during torque buildup. Fast work pace resulted in higher average grip forces by participants but a greater decrease in the force as the session progressed. Providing rest breaks reduced perceived exertions. The findings gain additional knowledge for assembly task design to possibly reduce the hand/arm injury risks for the operator.

Practitioner Summary: Powered hand tools are widely used in assembly and manufacturing industries. However, the nature of their repetitive use on human operator biomechanical and perceptual responses is not fully understood. This study examined work-related risk factors such as joint torque, pace and work:rest ratios on powered hand tool performance.     

Ergonomics action research II: a framework for integrating HF into work system design

This paper presents a conceptual framework that can support efforts to integrate human factors (HF) into the work system design process, where improved and cost-effective application of HF is possible. The framework advocates strategies of broad stakeholder participation, linking of performance and health goals, and process focussed change tools that can help practitioners engage in improvements to embed HF into a firm's work system design process. Recommended tools include business process mapping of the design process, implementing design criteria, using cognitive mapping to connect to managers’ strategic goals, tactical use of training and adopting virtual HF (VHF) tools to support the integration effort. Consistent with organisational change research, the framework provides guidance but does not suggest a strict set of steps. This allows more adaptability for the practitioner who must navigate within a particular organisational context to secure support for embedding HF into the design process for improved operator wellbeing and system performance.

Practitioner Summary: There has been little scientific literature about how a practitioner might integrate HF into a company's work system design process. This paper proposes a framework for this effort by presenting a coherent conceptual framework, process tools, design tools and procedural advice that can be adapted for a target organisation.     

Mind the gap: Impact on learnability of user interface design of authoring tools for teachers

Few teachers include information and communication technology in the classroom, despite their potential for increasing attention and motivation for students. Educational authoring tools are intended to turn teachers into designers and deliverers of technology-enhanced educational content, and increasing the adoption of these tools is a key element for speeding up this transformation. This paper emphasizes the importance of learnability for preventing rejection or abandonment by of such an authoring tool, and how acceptance is deeply affected by the interaction paradigm and the creation metaphor used in the tool. We present an analysis comparing two design paradigms: the widespread menu-based and choice-guided interaction paradigm versus a consistent metaphor with direct manipulation. The latter was implemented in DEDOS-Editor, a novel authoring tool that allows the creation of diverse educational activities that can be performed on different devices, such as PCs, digital blackboards, tablets, and multitouch surfaces. An experimental study shows the tremendous impact that interface choices have on the tool's learning curve. The results provide the first mapping of the choice of a direct-manipulation interface and its effect on the learning curve's entry point, as well as a consistent interaction metaphor with smoother and fast-growing learning curves. This allows users to complete more tasks and gain more knowledge through experience, in contrast to menu-based interfaces. The initial use of the tool is thus made easier for users with no experience or information about the tool, and the advantages of experience and expertize in facing new challenges are facilitating. This work also highlights the appropriateness of learning curves as a tool for measuring learnability.     

Stimulated recall methodology for assessing work system barriers and facilitators in family-centered rounds in a pediatric hospital

Human factors and ergonomics methods are needed to redesign healthcare processes and support patient-centered care, in particular for vulnerable patients such as hospitalized children. We implemented and evaluated a stimulated recall methodology for collective confrontation in the context of family-centered rounds. Five parents and five healthcare team members reviewed video records of their bedside rounds, and were then interviewed using the stimulated recall methodology to identify work system barriers and facilitators in family-centered rounds. The evaluation of the methodology was based on a survey of the participants, and a qualitative analysis of interview data in light of the work system model of 30 and 35. Positive survey feedback from the participants was received. The stimulated recall methodology identified barriers and facilitators in all work system elements. Participatory ergonomics methods such as the stimulated recall methodology allow a range of participants, including parents and children, to participate in healthcare process improvement.     

EDU-EX: A Tool for Auto-Regulated IntelligentTutoring Systems Development Based on Models

In recent years there has been an upsurge informs of instruction that envisage a permanentand ongoing involvement in education of novelconcepts such as planned and personalisedinstruction and autonomous learning. A largenumber of problems that arise in educationtoday may be solved by introducing newtechnologies into the educational environment,as they allow the form and content of tutoringsystems to be tailored to each individual. Theapplication of Artificial Intelligencetechniques is helping open up new prospects inthe field of teaching and learning. UsingArtificial Intelligence techniques in educationhas the advantage of making it possible torepresent expert reasoning and knowledgeskills, and to take advantage of thisexperience in education.This study has involved the development of atool to generate auto-regulated intelligenttutoring systems based on models. This form ofrepresentation makes it possible to break down,organise and represent information so as toenable the easy creation of functionalintelligent computerised tutoring systems.Information about the subject in question,about inference mechanisms, and of apedagogical nature (independent of any onestrategy) is all separated. The tool alsoenables knowledge acquired by a student to beconstantly monitored with a view toauto-regulating the course contents.     

The reliability of the Extra Load Index as a measure of relative load carriage economy

Abstract

The aim of this study was to measure the reliability of the extra load index (ELI) as a method for assessing relative load carriage economy. Seventeen volunteers (12 males, 5 females) performed walking trials at 3 km·h^?1, 6 km·h^?1 and a self-selected speed. Trial conditions were repeated 7 days later to assess test–retest reliability. Trials involved four 4-minute periods of walking, each separated by 5 min of rest. The initial stage was performed unloaded followed in a randomised order by a second unloaded period and walking with backpacks of 7 and 20 kg. Results show ELI values did not differ significantly between trials for any of the speeds (p = 0.46) with either of the additional loads (p = 0.297). The systematic bias, limits of agreement and coefficients of variation were small in all trial conditions. We conclude the ELI appears to be a reliable measure of relative load carriage economy.

Practitioner Summary: This paper demonstrates that the ELI is a reliable measure of load carriage economy at a range of walking speeds with both a light and heavy load. The ELI, therefore, represents a useful tool for comparing the relative economy associated with different load carriage systems.     

Progress in systems ergonomics: a selective review

Abstract

The 1967 conference on the Human Operator in Complex Systems identified several developments required in systems ergonomics. Progress in four areas requiring development is reviewed, based on information from workshops and surveys of applications of systems ergonomics in military systems. It is concluded that there has been less progress than might have been hoped in the use of systems relevant criteria in systems ergonomics. Few applications have involved trade-offs between selection, training and equipment design. Task analysis techniques have not advanced, although their use may be changing. Although there appears to be general agreement on the major activities associated with systems ergonomics, the emphasis placed on those different activities may be changing as a result of technological developments. However, these technological developments are now providing opportunities for systems ergonomists to improve their tools and techniques.     

A sustainable system of systems approach: a new HFE paradigm

Sustainability issues such as natural resource depletion, pollution and poor working conditions have no geographical boundaries in our interconnected world. To address these issues requires a paradigm shift within human factors and ergonomics (HFE), to think beyond a bounded, linear model understanding towards a broader systems framework. For this reason, we introduce a sustainable system of systems model that integrates the current hierarchical conceptualisation of possible interventions (i.e. micro-, meso- and macro-ergonomics) with important concepts from the sustainability literature, including the triple bottom line approach and the notion of time frames. Two practical examples from the HFE literature are presented to illustrate the model. The implications of this paradigm shift for HFE researchers and practitioners are discussed and include the long-term sustainability of the HFE community and comprehensive solutions to problems that consider the emergent issues that arise from this interconnected world.

Practitioner Summary: A sustainable world requires a broader systems thinking than that which currently exists in ergonomics. This study proposes a sustainable system of systems model that incorporates ideas from the ecological sciences, notably a nested hierarchy of systems and a hierarchical time dimension. The implications for sustainable design and the sustainability of the HFE community are considered.     

TEx-Sys model for building intelligent tutoring systems

Special classes of asynchronous e-learning systems are the intelligent tutoring systems which represent an advanced learning and teaching environment adaptable to individual student’s characteristics. Authoring shells have an environment that enables development of the intelligent tutoring systems. In this paper we present, in entirety, for the first time, our approach to research, development and implementation related to intelligent tutoring systems and ITS authoring shells. Our research relies on the traditional intelligent tutoring system, the consideration that teaching is control of learning and principles of good human tutoring in order to develop the Tutor–Expert System model for building intelligent tutoring systems in freely chosen domain knowledge. In this way we can wrap up an ongoing process that has lasted for the previous fifteen years. Prototype tests with the implemented systems have been carried out with students from a primary education to an academic level. Results of those tests are advantageous, according to surveys, and the implemented and deployed software satisfies functionalities and actors’ demands.