The ‘transfer of skill’ and the ‘transfer of human relations’ to machine systems

The necessity and opportunity for face-to-face contact with other colleagues is being increasingly reduced as a result of factory automation (FA) or office automation (OA). This means that human functions which are a result of human contact and relationships are substituted for by the function of machine systems. This transfer of relations from the human system to the machine system causes isolation of the individual in the process of work. This chapter considers some reasons for isolation with particular reference to the computerisation of production systems. The paper addresses the serious consequences for the environmental situation in Japan and the fabric of Japanese society.     

Beyond human error taxonomies in assessment of risk in sociotechnical systems: a new paradigm with the EAST ‘broken-links’ approach

Abstract

Risk assessments in Sociotechnical Systems (STS) tend to be based on error taxonomies, yet the term ‘human error’ does not sit easily with STS theories and concepts. A new break-link approach was proposed as an alternative risk assessment paradigm to reveal the effect of information communication failures between agents and tasks on the entire STS. A case study of the training of a Royal Navy crew detecting a low flying Hawk (simulating a sea-skimming missile) is presented using EAST to model the Hawk-Frigate STS in terms of social, information and task networks. By breaking 19 social links and 12 task links, 137 potential risks were identified. Discoveries included revealing the effect of risk moving around the system; reducing the risks to the Hawk increased the risks to the Frigate. Future research should examine the effects of compounded information communication failures on STS performance.

Practitioner Summary: The paper presents a step-by-step walk-through of EAST to show how it can be used for risk assessment in sociotechnical systems. The ‘broken-links’ method takes a systemic, rather than taxonomic, approach to identify information communication failures in social and task networks.     

Reply to ‘Feasibility of neural network approach in spectral mixture analysis of reflectance spectra’

Neural Networks (NN) have proliferated during recent years, and are widely used in the scientific environment, particularly providing interpretation of results acquired by spectroscopic techniques. Separately and independently, these results were historically analysed and interpreted with ‘classical techniques’, derived from statistical formulations. The purpose of this reply is to analyse under what conditions NN methods have a better performance than the statistical methods, when it is necessary to process a spectrum obtained by a linear spectroscopic technique. The use of Neural Networks methods instead of purely statistical methods for linear spectra analysis and interpretation is discussed.     

The ‘unreachable poles’ defect in LQR theory: analysis and remedy

In virtually every application of optimum linear-quadratic regulator (LQR) theory there exists a hidden region of ‘unreachable poles’ (in the left half-plane) which cannot be realized as optimum closed-loop poles. These regions of unreachable closed-loop poles are not visible using the solution procedures ordinarily employed in LQR applications and their lurking presence has (apparently) been overlooked by many professors, textbook writers and industrial users of LQR control theory for the past 25 years. The existence of these regions of unreachable poles represents a serious defect in the LQR method because those regions may (and often do!) contain closed-loop pole patterns which are considered highly desirable by classical control engineering standards, i.e. by ITAE and other classical standards of ‘ideal’ transient response. We first show how one can identify the regions of unreachable poles in an LQR problem. Then, it is shown how one can modify conventional LQR theory to overcome this defect and make all unreachable poles (in the left half-plane) become reachable. By this means, an explicit formula is derived for the LQR state-weighting matrix Q which will automatically produce ITAE or any other arbitrarily prescribed closed-loop pole patterns in the left half-plane.     

Do we need sustainability as a new approach in human factors and ergonomics?

The International Ergonomics Association Technical Committee ‘Human Factors and Sustainable Development’ was established to contribute to a broad discourse about opportunities and risks resulting from current societal ‘mega-trends’ and their impacts on the interactions among humans and other elements of a system, e.g. in work systems. This paper focuses on the underlying key issues: how do the sustainability paradigm and human factors/ergonomics interplay and interact, and is sustainability necessary as a new approach for our discipline? Based on a discussion of the sustainability concept, some general principles for designing new and enhancing existent approaches of human factors and ergonomics regarding their orientation towards sustainability are proposed.

Practitioner summary: The increasing profile of sustainability on the international stage presents new opportunities for human factors/ergonomics. Positioning of the sustainability paradigm within human factors/ergonomics is discussed. Approaches to incorporating sustainability in the design of work systems are considered.     

A trace-based approach to identifying users’ engagement and qualifying their engaged-behaviours in interactive systems: application to a social game

Analysing and monitoring users’ engaged-behaviours continuously and under ecologically valid conditions can reveal valuable information for designers and practitioners, allowing them to analyse, design and monitor the interactive mediated activity, and then to adapt and personalise it. An interactive mediated activity is a human activity supported by digital interactive technologies. While classical metric methods fall within quantitative approaches, this paper proposes a qualitative approach to identifying users’ engagement and qualifying their engaged-behaviours from their traces of interaction. Traces of interaction represent the users’ activities with an interactive environment. The basis of our approach is to transform low-level traces of interaction into meaningful information represented in higher-level traces. For this, our approach combines three theoretical frameworks: the Self-Determination Theory, the Activity Theory and the Trace Theory. Our approach has been implemented and tested in the context of the QUEJANT Projet. QUEJANT targets the development of a system allowing the actors of Social Gaming to analyse players’ engagement from an analysis of their activity traces. In order to demonstrate the feasibility of our approach, we implemented the whole process in a prototype and applied it to 12 players’ interaction data collected over four months. Based on these interaction data, we were able to identify engaged and non-engaged users and to qualify their types of engaged-behaviours. We also conducted a user study based on a validation of our results by experts. The high prediction rate obtained confirms the performance of our approach. We finally discuss the limitations of our approach, the potential fields of application and the implications for digital behavioural interventions.     

The effect of ‘ unwanted’ signals on performance in a vigilance task: a reply to Jerison

Jerison's remarks (Ergonomics, 1966, 9, 413) are discussed in relation to the results of a further experiment on ' unwanted ' signals in which (a) the original interaction between the effects of signal probability and signal disc location was not observed, and (b) it was demonstrated that a search requirement is not a necessary condition for eliciting the main effects previously found.     

Comments on ‘The phenomenon of homeopathic instability in dynamical systems’

Less restrictive sufficiency conditions on system parameters are developed for the existence of homeopathic instability in the class of dynamical systems considered by Johnson. With these conditions, the results are consistent with the earlier work of Youla el at., in particular in terms of the pole-zero interpretation of the sufficiency conditions. A typographical error in the work by Johnson is also noted.     

Human factors/ergonomics as a systems discipline? “The human use of human beings” revisited

Discussions of the possible future of Human factors/ergonomics (HFE) usually take the past for granted in the sense that the future of HFE is assumed to be more of the same. This paper argues that the nature of work in the early 2010s is so different from the nature of work when HFE was formulated 60–70 years ago that a critical reassessment of the basis for HFE is needed. If HFE should be a systems discipline, it should be a soft systems rather than a hard systems discipline. It is not enough for HFE to seek to improve performance and well-being through systems design, since any change to the work environment in principle alters the very basis for the change. Instead HFE should try to anticipate how the nature of work will change so that it can both foresee what work will be and propose what work should be.     

Information systems and culture: Applying ‘stages of growth’ concepts to development administration

Abstract

This paper examines how cultural factors influence the rate at which individuals adopt technology to assist them in their duties. In order to achieve this, we review usage of the stages of growth model of information systems development in organisations which has been applied in the context of western and non‐western organisations in various parts of the world. We then apply the model to the context of development administration where information technology interventions are becoming pervasive but where the inherent traditional cultural characteristics are fundamentally at variance with those of information technology practitioners. The case study we present is that of the implementation of information systems in the Karachi Development Authority (KDA). The findings highlight the utility and limitations of the stages of growth model in terms of its ability to accommodate the inherent cultural characteristics of KDA. While such knowledge will have value for information technology practitioners within their own societies, we contend that it will become even more valuable for practitioners from western cultures in applying technology solutions to development administration.     

The effects of a Web-based training in an instructional systems design approach on teachers’ instructional design behavior

Deficiencies in instructional design skill have been identified as a possible cause for the problems teachers of Dutch Polytechnics experience in designing competency-based education. This research investigates the effects of an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) training on teachers’ instructional design behavior. Thirty-six teachers from 16 Dutch Teacher Training Colleges received 20 hours of web-based training either in an ISD based condition or in an experience-based design condition (EXP). In the ISD condition teachers were trained to apply the Four-Component Instructional Design Model (4C-ID model) of Van Merriënboer (1997). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications, in the EXP condition the teachers were trained to optimize their own approach. The results supported the hypotheses, indicating that the ISD-based training resulted in a higher quality of design and was evaluated more positively than the EXP approach. These findings suggest that training in an ISD approach can effectively support teachers’ instructional design strategies.