The work compatibility improvement framework: an assessment of the worker–work environment interaction in the manufacturing sector

The manufacturing sector in the US is challenged by high health care costs and shortage of qualified workers, which are largely attributed to the degree of fit between the worker and work environment. In this regard, a healthy worker–work environment interface is a necessary and sufficient condition for the containment of health care costs and the retaining/attraction of highly qualified knowledge workers and should be based on the principles of optimum physical, cognitive and emotional health for the workers. In prior research, the Work Compatibility Improvement Framework (WCIF) was introduced as a vehicle to address these issues and was defined as the identification, improvement and maintenance of the well-being characteristics of the workforce and its interaction with the work environment through the application of engineering, medicine, management and human sciences methodologies, technologies and best practices. This paper advances WCIF by examining its applications in manufacturing with regard to the evaluation of working conditions impacting musculoskeletal/stress outcome measures. A study was conducted in a machining department of a bag packaging manufacturer in the Midwest of the United States. The work tasks were planned and executed with regard to the following aims: (1) to compute work compatibility as a function of work demands and energisers; (2) to establish whether the prevalence of musculoskeletal/stress disorders increases with a decrease in the quality of worker–work environment interface in terms of work compatibility level and other work factors such as shift and job category. A major finding is that a ‘poor’ work environment (a function of all work domains) results in musculoskeletal/stress disorders that are 105% and 67% higher than those for a ‘good’ work environment. The evening shift exhibited the poorest compatibility followed by the night shift relative to the day shift. Application of the work compatibility approach demonstrated the detection of non-added value work. It is essential to evaluate the various domains of worker–work environment interface to uncover the root causes that tend to sub-optimise the physical/cognitive/emotional health of the workforce. The WCIF was used to uncover the non-value added effort in the work process. These findings will have major implications for developing and implementing customised design interventions with the aim to maximise the benefit and reduce the cost of employees in a manufacturing enterprise. The study findings suggest that the WCIF should be pursued as a potential strategic tool for optimising human performance in an enterprise to create healthy workplaces.     

The work compatibility improvement framework: an assessment of the worker-work environment interaction in the manufacturing sector

The manufacturing sector in the US is challenged by high health care costs and shortage of qualified workers, which are largely attributed to the degree of fit between the worker and work environment. In this regard, a healthy worker-work environment interface is a necessary and sufficient condition for the containment of health care costs and the retaining/attraction of highly qualified knowledge workers and should be based on the principles of optimum physical, cognitive and emotional health for the workers. In prior research, the Work Compatibility Improvement Framework (WCIF) was introduced as a vehicle to address these issues and was defined as the identification, improvement and maintenance of the well-being characteristics of the workforce and its interaction with the work environment through the application of engineering, medicine, management and human sciences methodologies, technologies and best practices. This paper advances WCIF by examining its applications in manufacturing with regard to the evaluation of working conditions impacting musculoskeletal/stress outcome measures. A study was conducted in a machining department of a bag packaging manufacturer in the Midwest of the United States. The work tasks were planned and executed with regard to the following aims: (1) to compute work compatibility as a function of work demands and energisers; (2) to establish whether the prevalence of musculoskeletal/stress disorders increases with a decrease in the quality of worker-work environment interface in terms of work compatibility level and other work factors such as shift and job category. A major finding is that a 'poor' work environment (a function of all work domains) results in musculoskeletal/stress disorders that are 105% and 67% higher than those for a 'good' work environment. The evening shift exhibited the poorest compatibility followed by the night shift relative to the day shift. Application of the work compatibility approach demonstrated the detection of non-added value work. It is essential to evaluate the various domains of worker-work environment interface to uncover the root causes that tend to sub-optimise the physical/cognitive/emotional health of the workforce. The WCIF was used to uncover the non-value added effort in the work process. These findings will have major implications for developing and implementing customised design interventions with the aim to maximise the benefit and reduce the cost of employees in a manufacturing enterprise. The study findings suggest that the WCIF should be pursued as a potential strategic tool for optimising human performance in an enterprise to create healthy workplaces.     

Determinants of business sustainability: An ergonomics perspective

There is a need to integrate both macro- and micro-ergonomic approaches for the effective implementation of interventions designed to improve the root causes of problems such as work safety, quality and productivity in the enterprise system. The objective of this study was to explore from an ergonomics perspective the concept of business sustainability through optimising the worker–work environment interface. The specific aims were: (a) to assess the working conditions of a production department work process with the goal to jointly optimise work safety, quality and quantity; (b) to evaluate the enterprise-wide work process at the system level as a social entity in an attempt to trace the root causes of ergonomic issues impacting employees throughout the work process. The Work Compatibility Model was deployed to examine the experiences of workers (that is, effort, perceived risk/benefit, performance and satisfaction/dissatisfaction or psychological impact) and their associations with the complex domains of the work environment (task content, physical and non-physical work environment and conditions for learning/growth/development). This was followed by assessment of the enterprise system through detailed interviews with department managers and lead workers. A system diagnostic instrument was also constructed from information derived from the published literature to evaluate the enterprise system performance. The investigation of the production department indicated that the stress and musculoskeletal pain experienced by workers (particularly on the day shift) were derived from sources elsewhere in the work process. The enterprise system evaluation and detailed interviews allowed the research team to chart the feed-forward and feedback stress propagation loops in the work system. System improvement strategies were extracted on the basis of tacit/explicit knowledge obtained from department managers and lead workers. In certain situations concerning workplace human performance issues, a combined macro–micro ergonomic methodology is essential to solve the productivity, quality and safety issues impacting employees along the trajectory or path of the enterprise-wide work process. In this study, the symptoms associated with human performance issues in one production department work process had root causes originating in the customer service department work process. In fact, the issues found in the customer service department caused performance problems elsewhere in the enterprise-wide work process such as the traffic department. Sustainable enterprise solutions for workplace human performance require the integration of macro- and micro-ergonomic approaches.     

Determinants of business sustainability: an ergonomics perspective

There is a need to integrate both macro- and micro-ergonomic approaches for the effective implementation of interventions designed to improve the root causes of problems such as work safety, quality and productivity in the enterprise system. The objective of this study was to explore from an ergonomics perspective the concept of business sustainability through optimising the worker-work environment interface. The specific aims were: (a) to assess the working conditions of a production department work process with the goal to jointly optimise work safety, quality and quantity; (b) to evaluate the enterprise-wide work process at the system level as a social entity in an attempt to trace the root causes of ergonomic issues impacting employees throughout the work process. The Work Compatibility Model was deployed to examine the experiences of workers (that is, effort, perceived risk/benefit, performance and satisfaction/dissatisfaction or psychological impact) and their associations with the complex domains of the work environment (task content, physical and non-physical work environment and conditions for learning/growth/development). This was followed by assessment of the enterprise system through detailed interviews with department managers and lead workers. A system diagnostic instrument was also constructed from information derived from the published literature to evaluate the enterprise system performance. The investigation of the production department indicated that the stress and musculoskeletal pain experienced by workers (particularly on the day shift) were derived from sources elsewhere in the work process. The enterprise system evaluation and detailed interviews allowed the research team to chart the feed-forward and feedback stress propagation loops in the work system. System improvement strategies were extracted on the basis of tacit/explicit knowledge obtained from department managers and lead workers. In certain situations concerning workplace human performance issues, a combined macro-micro ergonomic methodology is essential to solve the productivity, quality and safety issues impacting employees along the trajectory or path of the enterprise-wide work process. In this study, the symptoms associated with human performance issues in one production department work process had root causes originating in the customer service department work process. In fact, the issues found in the customer service department caused performance problems elsewhere in the enterprise-wide work process such as the traffic department. Sustainable enterprise solutions for workplace human performance require the integration of macro- and micro-ergonomic approaches.     

Occupational health services for shift and night workers

It is important for an occupational health service to plan health supervision and measures for shift and night workers considering the biorhythmic and psychosocial desynchronisation, as well as the frequent prevalence of combined effects of adverse environmental and working conditions. The measures taken should be preventive to reduce the expected health risks rather than being rehabilitative. Both a medical surveillance and a counselling service are recommended before and during engagement in shift and night work. Sleep, digestive, metabolic and cardiovascular troubles should be noted and followed up. Medical counselling is especially necessary in the first months of shift and night work exposure and then after long-term exposure. The postulate for timed surveillance and intervention is supported by data of our epidemiologic investigations. The importance of the single health measures is underlined by direct reference to the relevant literature. Recommendations that should be applied in all countries and enterprises are in accordance with the ILO Night Work Convention 1990a and include: (1) appropriate occupational health services provided for night and shift workers, including counselling; (2) first aid facilities during all shift hours; (3) the option of transfer to day work when certified unfit for night work for reasons of health; and (4) measures for women on night shifts, in particular special maternity protection (transfer to day work, social security benefits or an extension of maternity leave). Examples of occupational health services already installed in some states for shift and night workers, and information on future developments are given. Up to now the medical service has been implemented mostly on the basis of collective agreements rather than on the basis of legal provisions. The Austrian Night Shift/Heavy Work Law Regulations of 1981, revised 1993, are cited: workers exposed to night shifts under defined single or combined additional heavy workloads are entitled to a special health assessment, additional rest pauses, additional free time and early retirement depending on years of exposure.     

The role of experience in night work: Lessons from two ergonomic studies

The purpose of this article is to analyze some connections between experience, health and work, especially in the field of night work. As a result of the baby boom, the proportion of elderly workers is steadily increasing, while at the same time many workers are reaching retirement age and being replaced by younger people. And, in the same time, there is an overall gradual increase in shift work and night work. To our knowledge, worker experience has not been extensively studied in this context. This was our focus in studying work activity in two very different situations, in a hospital and in a steel industry.In these two studies we observed that the experienced workers endeavor to plan ahead, especially at night. They do this to limit fatigue and to avoid emergencies and ensure that work is stress-free and as far as possible under control. But experience not only brings workers to plan ahead, it also enables them to do so, thanks to the resources it confers: gaining familiarity with tasks and acquiring the ability to identify critical situations, gaining knowledge about themselves and awareness of situations that cause difficulty; and gaining a better overview of the collective aspects of their work and of ways to share tasks or obtain assistance.They are able to undertake these strategies thanks to specific skills and capacities they have built along their professional career, which notably leads them to find the best trade-off between several goals, possibly contradictory.Such experience is especially valuable at night, when the worker is tired, and when there are fewer supervisors present. This experience can only be gained, however, if the work environment fosters its acquisition and provides an opportunity to make use of it, especially during the night shift and especially with respect to planning tasks ahead of time.     

Fatigue assessment among onshore oil rig shift workers in Thailand

This study aimed to assess fatigue among onshore oil rig shift workers in a petroleum company working in swing shifts. The work schedule consisted of 12 h of night shifts for one week followed by 12 h of day shifts for one week. Fatigue was assessed using both subjective and objective measurements which were visual analogue fatigue scale (VAFS) and simple reaction time (SRT) test, respectively. A total of 38 male onshore oil rig shift workers participated in this study. Fatigue assessment was conducted at the start and at the end of workdays on nights 1, 4 and 7, and days 1, 4 and 7. The results showed that there were significant differences of VAFS and SRT at the end of workdays, compared with at the start of workdays (p < 0.001). The fatigue level assessed by both SRT and VAFS was highest on the rotating day (p < 0.001). In conclusion, swing shifts might affect fatigue levels in shift workers. The fatigue level increased over the two-week work period. Further studies on fatigue assessment and management among onshore oil rig shift workers are still needed.     

Influence of shift work in process industry on workers' occupational health,productivity, and family and social life: An ergonomic approach

Shift work is a major feature of modern work practices. It involves working at times considered unconventional for most workers, such as at night. Although the community often benefits from such work practices, shift work can be hazardous for both the workers and the community. There are increased risks for accidents and errors, increased sleepiness and fatigue due to difficulties sleeping, increased health problems, and disruptions to family and social life. More shift workers complained of sleep disturbance, poor sleep quality, tiredness at awakening, and sleepiness in work than did non‐shift workers. More shift workers also complained of gastrointestinal disturbances than did non‐shift workers. The aim of this article is to provide general information on shift work, work schedules, and the effects of work schedules on sleep, fatigue, performance, the health of the human operator, and productivity. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Shiftwork and work injuries in an iron and steel mill

A study on work injuries that occurred over a five-year period was conducted in an iron and steel mill employing over 1000 workers. Of all the 921 injuries which required more than one day's sick leave, over 40% (383 cases) happened during the morning shift (0700-1500 hours), 210 cases occurred in the afternoon shift (1500-2300 hours) and only 150 cases were reported during the night shift. There were two injury peaks throughout the day, one at mid-morning (between 0900 and 1000 hours) and the other towards the mid-afternoon (1400-1500 hours). It was observed that hand injuries were more common during the morning and afternoon shifts and foot injuries normally occurred at night. 'Fall' was one of the main causes of accidents at night, whereas 'struck by' heavy objects and 'burn' were more common during the day. Although there were more accidents during the morning and afternoon shifts, work injuries which occurred at night generally required a longer duration of sick leave. This suggests that accidents which happened at night were more serious. It is believed that the work habits, shift systems and work environment have a substantial influence on these accidents.     

What is the evidence for less shift work tolerance in older workers?

This paper explores the suggestion that older people would be less tolerant to shift work. Field studies on age-shift work interaction effects on sleep, fatigue, performance, accidents and health were reviewed. Studies on age-shift (morning, afternoon, night) and age-shift system (roster) interactions were also reviewed. In nine studies, shift and day workers were compared and interactions with age were addressed. Two studies reported more problems in older people, four studies reported opposite results, while in five studies no significant age-shift work interaction was observed. From across-shift comparisons (six studies), it was deduced that older compared with younger workers have more sleep problems with night shifts, while the opposite is true for morning shifts. This review did find some differences between older and younger workers, but did not find evidence for the suggestion of more shift work problems in older workers. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: This systematic review reveals the limited evidence that exists concerning shift work tolerance in older workers, highlighting an area for future research. Some interactions between age and shift type and shift system have been found, however. In view of these, it is argued that age-specific aspects should be considered in shift work planning.     

Individual differences in night and continuously-rotating shiftwork: seeking anticipatory rather than compensatory strategy

Individual differences in adaptation to night or continuously-rotating shiftwork may reflect distinct strategies of coping with temporal challenges of the environment. Rather than studying compensatory mechanisms, we have chosen the anticipatory response of the sleep onset time preceding work in order to reveal the strategy used by workers submitted to those shift systems including night work. Comprehensive interviews, taking into account several aspects of the workers' lives, allowed for a classification of the subjects in terms of adaptation to their working schedules. Night workers go to bed once a day, whereas shiftworkers prefer to allocate their sleep onsets to two different periods of the day. For both cases, the more well-adapted an individual is, according to the classification obtained by the interviews, the more regular will be the choice of sleep onset times.     

An ergonomic expert system for risk assessment of work-related musculo-skeletal disorders

A computer-based expert system (SONEX) was developed to identify ergonomic risks for work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs) in a wide variety of jobs and provide expert prevention advice. SONEX uses a rule base and 6 knowledge base modules: WRMSD risk factors are grouped into two main knowledge base modules (symptoms, engaged body part) with four supplementary knowledge base modules (work environment, work chair, work tools, organization factors). SONEX uses a menu-based interface and a series of simple questions that lead a user through each of the two main modules. Based on user responses it then recommends other knowledge base modules that are relevant for a detailed analysis of work risks. The SONEX rule base has over 140 questions, the knowledge base includes over 200 risk factors, and around 500 possible answers can be generated. SONEX relates ergonomic shortcomings in the job with worker's subjective symptoms; it predicts possible WRMSDs; and it offers preventive suggestions for ergonomic improvements to the job to prevent WRMSDs. It has been tested in a variety of work places with known ergonomic problems and with known employee WRMSDs by comparing its performance with conventional analytical methods and results show that it accurately predicts possible WRMSD risks and identifies ergonomic shortcomings. The advantages of SONEX are that it is much faster than other ergonomic analysis methods and it can be used by ergonomists and other professionals and also by workers themselves.     

Sleep and need for recovery in shift workers: do chronotype and age matter?

This study examined associations of chronotype and age with shift-specific assessments of main sleep duration, sleep quality and need for recovery in a cross-sectional study among N = 261 industrial shift workers (96.6% male). Logistic regression analyses were used, adjusted for gender, lifestyle, health, nap behaviour, season of assessment and shift schedule. Shift workers with latest versus earliest chronotype reported a shorter sleep duration (OR 11.68, 95% CI 3.31–41.17) and more awakenings complaints (OR 4.84, 95% CI 4.45–11.92) during morning shift periods. No associations were found between chronotype, sleep and need for recovery during evening and night shift periods. For age, no associations were found with any of the shift-specific outcome measures. The results stress the importance of including the concept of chronotype in shift work research and scheduling beyond the concept of age. Longitudinal research using shift-specific assessments of sleep and need for recovery are needed to confirm these results.

Practitioner Summary: Chronotype seems to better explain individual differences in sleep than age. In view of ageing societies, it might therefore be worthwhile to further examine the application of chronotype for individualised shift work schedules to facilitate healthy and sustainable employment.     

The association between shift work and treatment-seeking migraine in Denmark

Abstract

In Europe, the one-year prevalence of migraine is 14.9% and migraine is on the top-10 list of leading causes of years lost to disability. Sleep disturbances and irregular daily routines are considered triggers of migraine and these factors are well-known consequences of shift work. We studied the association between treatment-seeking migraine and shift work, categorised as fixed evening work, fixed night work and variable working hours with and without night work in a Danish working population of 5872 participants. When compared with fixed day workers, only participants with fixed evening work were found to have significantly increased odds of reporting treatment-seeking migraine after adjustment for socio-demographic and behavioural covariates (OR = 1.56; 95% CI 1.05–2.32). Participants with seniority of 10 years or more notably accounted for this association. Due to the cross-sectional design, selection mechanisms may have biased the results.

Practitioner Summary: The study showed higher odds of treatment-seeking migraine among evening workers even when taking a range of potential confounders into account. Due to the cross-sectional design, we cannot draw any causal inferences, but potential mechanisms underlying the present study are discussed, with an emphasis on possible selection into evening work.     

Experimental Changes in Shift Schedules—Their Effects on Well-Being

A questionnaire was given to 400 workers on different shift schedules (day, 2 shift, 3 shift (weekly rotation) and 4 shift (2-3 day rotation)), shortly before, and in the year after the work schedules of 131 of them had been changed to accommodate an overall reduction in the total amount of shift working. Those workers who had to change from 3 or 4 shift working to 2 shift working (without night work) showed a significant increase in well-being with respect lo sleep/mood, gastrointestinal functioning, and social factors, along with an improvement in attitude to their work schedules. Those who were switched from shift to day work reported greatly increased social well-being, a shortening of sleep-length during free days, and considerably improved altitudes towards their work schedule; their sickness absence rates were also reduced. Attitudes towards the change from fast rotation to slow rotation of shift cycles in those whose schedule was altered from 4 shift to 3 shift working were mainly negative. Questionnaire scores remained at their original levels in the 269 workers whose schedules were left unchanged, It is concluded that the abolition of night work results in a substantial improvement in mental, physical and social well-being.     

企业员工甄选专家系统的开发与应用

本文通过对企业员工甄选决策一般过程的分析，系统介绍了如何将专家系统技术应用于企业员工甄选的决策，并说明了“企业员工甄选专家系统”的制作方法与应用效果。     

The Work Compatibility Improvement Framework: an integrated perspective of the human-at-work system

The industrial revolution demonstrated the limitations of a pure mechanistic approach towards work design. Human work is now seen as a complex entity that involves different scientific branches and blurs the line between mental and physical activities. Job design has been a traditional concern of applied psychology, which has provided insight into the interaction between the individual and the work environment. The goal of this paper is to introduce the human-at-work system as a holistic approach to organizational design. It postulates that the well-being of workers and work outcomes are issues that need to be addressed jointly, moving beyond traditional concepts of job satisfaction and work stress. The work compatibility model (WCM) is introduced as an engineering approach that seeks to integrate previous constructs of job and organizational design. The WCM seeks a balance between energy expenditure and replenishment. The implementation of the WCM in industrial settings is described within the context of the Work Compatibility Improvement Framework. A sample review of six models (motivation-hygiene theory; job characteristics theory; person-environment fit; demand-control model; and balance theory) provides the foundation for the interaction between the individual and the work environment. A review of three workload assessment methods (position analysis questionnaire, job task analysis and NASA task load index) gives an example of the foundation for the taxonomy of work environment domains. Previous models have sought to identify a balance state for the human-at-work system. They differentiated between the objective and subjective effects of the environment and the worker. An imbalance between the person and the environment has been proven to increase health risks. The WCM works with a taxonomy of 12 work domains classified in terms of the direct (acting) or indirect (experienced) effect on the worker. In terms of measurement, two quantitative methods are proposed to measure the state of the system. The first method introduced by Abdallah et al. (2004) identifies operating zones. The second method introduced by Salem et al. (2006) identifies the distribution of the work elements on the x/y coordinate plane. While previous efforts have identified some relevant elements of the systems, they failed to provide a holistic, quantitative approach combining organizational and human factors into a common framework. It is postulated that improving the well-being of workers will simultaneously improve organizational outcomes. The WCM moves beyond previous models by providing a hierarchical structure of work domains and a combination of methods to diagnose any organizational setting. The WCM is an attempt to achieve organizational excellence in human resource management, moving beyond job design to an integrated improvement strategy. A joint approach to organizational and job design will not only result in decreased prevalence of health risks, but in enhanced organizational effectiveness as well. The implementation of the WCM, that is, the Work Compatibility Improvement Framework, provides the basis for integrating different elements of the work environment into a single reliable construct. An improvement framework is essential to ensure that the measures of the WCM result in a system that is adaptive and self-regulated.     

Productivity on a weekly rotating shift system: circadian adjustment and sleep deprivation effects?

Abstract

There is little doubt that productivity and safety can be impaired on the night shift. Two main factors have been identified that may be responsible for this. On the one hand, the circadian rhythm in performance on at least simple tasks is at a low ebb at night, and adjusts only slowly over a span of night shifts. On the other, the day sleeps of shift workers taken between night shifts are of a reduced duration, and thus a cumulative sleep debt may accrue over successive night shifts. The former thus predicts that productivity should improve over a span of night duty, while the latter predicts that it should decline. We have examined the productivity of 53 female shift workers, and the sleeping habits of a sub-sample of 30 of them, on a weekly rotating shift system in order to assess the relative contribution of these two factors. Our results suggest that circadian adjustment to night work is the dominant factor for the first three or four successive nights shifts, but that sleep deprivation effects may then result in a decrease in productivity over subsequent nights. They also indicate that sleep deprivation, but not circadian adjustment, may affect the productivity of some workers when on the morning shift.     

Work compatibility: An integrated diagnostic tool for evaluating musculoskeletal responses to work and stress outcomes

Advances in human-based systems have progressed at a slower pace than those for technological systems. This is largely attributed to the complex web of variables that jointly influence work outcomes, making it more difficult to develop a quantitative methodology to solve this problem. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop and validate work compatibility as a diagnostic tool to evaluate musculoskeletal and stress outcomes. Work compatibility is defined as a latent variable integrating the positive and negative impact characteristics of work variables in the human-at-work system in the form of a prescribed relationship.

The theoretical basis of work compatibility is described at length in terms of concepts and models. In addition, approximate reasoning solutions for the compatibility variables are presented in terms of three models, namely, linear, ratio, and expert. A test case of 55 service workers in a hospital setting has been used to validate work compatibility with respect to severe musculoskeletal and high stress outcomes. The results have demonstrated that the expert compatibility model provided the stronger and more significant associations with work outcomes in comparison to the linear and ratio compatibility models. In conclusion, although the work compatibility validation is limited by both the cross-sectional design and sample size, the promising findings of this exploratory investigation suggest that further studies are warranted to investigate work compatibility as a diagnostic tool to evaluate musculoskeletal and stress outcomes in the workplace.