Learning from errors in a driving simulation: effects on driving skill and self-confidence

Two experiments investigated the effect of making errors during training (error training) on a driving simulator versus learning from examples of errors (guided error training) on driving skill and confidence. Experiment 1 indicated that compared with errorless learning (where participants drove through a training run not designed to elicit errors), error training led to significantly better transfer to driving tests that were analogous to those situations encountered in training and more effective use of strategies for coping with a novel driving situation. Error training also reduced self-confidence in driving skill at the end of training relative to errorless learning. Experiment 2 provided weak evidence of the superiority of guided error training over errorless learning (where the driver in the video did not make any errors) on analogous tests, and no evidence of transfer to a novel test. Furthermore, guided error training did not influence self-confidence in driving skill. The potential value of driving simulators in providing active processing during driver training is discussed, along with the effects of passive and active exposure to errors on driver confidence.     

Learning to make errors: evidence from a driving task simulation

Human errors represent a mismatch between the demands of an operational system and what the operator does. If they cannot be reversed, their consequences may be severe. Errors are frequently classified as design-or operator-induced. A third class of errors may also be identified, namely process-induced errors. Such errors arise out of on-going processes which typically extend over time. One such process is that of learning. In relation to the acquisition of skills, for example, learning frequently involves a trial-and-error component. Accidents by inexperienced drivers may represent a severe consequence of such errors. Errors may also arise out of particular learning experiences which provide a distorted underestimate of objective risk and/or motivate high risk behaviour. These phenomena are investigated in a computer simulation of the driving task. The relationship is discussed between various kinds of learning experience and the development of situations in which the possibility of error recovery declines. Some suggestions for reducing the frequency of irreversible errors and for increasing the data base for human error in vehicle driving are made.     

Aberrant driving behaviour: errors and violations

The present study was a replication of the research of Reason et al. (1990). Its aim was to confirm the distinction between driving errors and violations in a Western Australian driving population. Sixty-one male drivers and 74 female drivers completed a questionnaire containing items on driver demographics, driving penalties incurred, driving convictions and accident history and driver behavioural aberrations drawn from the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). In agreement with Reason et al. factor analysis revealed three factors; in the present study these were general errors, dangerous errors, and dangerous violations. Young drivers committed more dangerous errors and dangerous violations than older drivers. Females reported more dangerous errors than males. Males reported more dangerous violations than females. Drivers who reported a high level of road exposure and those who reported having been convicted for speeding reported more dangerous violations. Differences in the results of the two studies can largely by accounted for by differences in the representation of age and gender in the two populations studied.     

Aberrant driving behaviour: homogeneity of a four-factor structure in samples differing in age and gender

Four samples, representing a broad age range, were compared in confirmatory factor analyses with respect to a four-factor model of aberrant driving behaviour. With the restrictions imposed on the data by the model, an approximate fit was obtained for all four samples. Additional analyses, which tested equality of factor loadings and correlations for different age groups, also indicated that the model was a good fit. Separate analyses on male and female respondents yielded similar results. Although earlier results have shown that aberrant driving behaviours are differentially related to age and gender, the findings suggest that structural differences in relation to age and gender may be of minor importance. The four-factor model of aberrant driving behaviour sufficiently meets statistical criteria in a model-generating phase. In addition, it is an appropriate solution to apply on data obtained from respondents varying in age and gender.     

The effects of simulated fog and motion on simulator sickness in a driving simulator and the duration of after-effects

In the study, we checked: 1) how the simulator test conditions affect the severity of simulator sickness symptoms; 2) how the severity of simulator sickness symptoms changes over time; and 3) whether the conditions of the simulator test affect the severity of these symptoms in different ways, depending on the time that has elapsed since the performance of the task in the simulator.     

The effects of using a portable music player on simulated driving performance and task-sharing strategies

This study examined the effects of performing scrollable music selection tasks using a portable music player (iPod Touch™) on simulated driving performance and task-sharing strategies, as evidenced through eye glance behaviour and secondary task performance. A total of 37 drivers (18–48 yrs) completed the PC-based MUARC Driver Distraction Test (DDT) while performing music selection tasks on an iPod Touch. Drivers’ eye glance behaviour was examined using faceLAB eye tracking equipment. Results revealed that performing music search tasks while driving increased the amount of time that drivers spent with their eyes off the roadway and decreased their ability to maintain a constant lane position and time headway from a lead vehicle. There was also evidence, however, that drivers attempted to regulate their behaviour when distracted by decreasing their speed and taking a large number of short glances towards the device. Overall, results suggest that performing music search tasks while driving is problematic and steps to prohibit this activity should be taken.     

Road-edge delineation in rural areas: effects on driving behaviour

When driving on lower-category Dutch rural roads without any delineation, drivers are likely to drift off the road with their right-side wheels, thus incurring damage to the pavement edge or even leading to accidents. In two experiments, two types of road-edge delineation, with continuous or dashed edge lines, were compared with two control roads without lines or with only a dashed line on the road axis. The first experiment consisted of non-obtrusive video recordings of passing traffic. Vehicle position on the experimental roads was more to the road's centre than on the control roads. The second experiment was a driving test with an instrumented vehicle, during daytime lighting and during darkness. Again, vehicle lateral position was more central on the experimental roads, especially during darkness. Subjects could safely pass oncoming vehicles. Driving speed increased on the experimental roads compared with the unlined control road, but not beyond speeds found on the axis-lined control road. Driver's mental effort while driving over the experimental roads did not differ from the effort while driving over the control roads. Subjectively rated effort was higher for the unlined control road than for the three other roads. Subjects preferred the edge-lined roads to the unlined control road, but not more than the axis-lined control road. It was concluded that edge-lines may provide a simple and effective way of inducing a more favourable lateral position on rural roads without having negative effects on subjective appraisal, driving performance or mental workload.     

Driver behaviour at rail level crossings: responses to flashing lights, traffic signals and stop signs in simulated rural driving

Australian road and railway authorities have made a concerted effort to reduce the number of rail level crossings, particularly the higher risk passive crossings that are protected by devices such as ‘give way’ or ‘stop’ signs. To improve this situation, passive level crossings are often upgraded with active controls such as flashing red lights. Traffic signals may provide good safety outcomes at level crossings but remain untested. The primary purpose of this research was to compare driver behaviour at two railway level crossings with active controls, flashing red lights and traffic signals, to behaviour at the current standard passive level crossing control, a stop sign. Participants drove the MUARC advanced driving simulator for 30 min. During the simulated drive, participants were exposed to three level crossing scenarios. Each scenario consisted of one of three level crossing control types, and was associated with an oncoming train. Mean vehicle speed on approach to the level crossings decreased more rapidly in response to flashing lights than to traffic signals. While speed on approach was lowest for the stop-sign condition, the number of non-compliant drivers (i.e., those who did not stop) at the crossing was highest for this condition. While results indicate that traffic signals at rail level crossings do not appear to offer any safety benefits over and above flashing red lights, further avenues of research are proposed to reach more definitive conclusions. Compliance was lowest for the passive crossing control which provides further support for the ongoing passive crossing upgrades in Australia.     

Investigation of driving performance, vection, postural sway, and simulator sickness in a fixed-based driving simulator

This paper reports the results of a pilot study conducted to determine whether there is a relationship between simulator sickness and measures of driver inputs, vection, and postural sway, in a fixed base driving simulator. Seven males and four females performed a series of alternating left and right turns (20 each), with straigth-aways inbetween. The task was designed to promote experiences of circular and linear vection, and associated sway. It was hypothesized that greater driver inputs (i.e., steering wheel and braking activity; deviation from the centerline) would correlate: with reports of vection and measures of postural sway. Ten of the eleven subjects reported moderate sickness, which precluded any statistical comparisons between “sick” and “not sick” however, there was a significant tendency for persons who reported vection to also report sickness. There were no gender differences in reported incidence of vection or sickness, however, males tended to exhibit greater lateral velocity. The next phase of investigation will necessitate reducing the strength of the stimulus (i.e., require less turns) to increase variability of sickness scores amongst subjects and permit comparisons between “sick” and “not sick.” Measurement considerations include increasing the sensitivity of vection ratings, and examination of the timecourse for the development of postural sway.     

Mobile phones and driving: a review of contemporary research

This study reviews research on the effects of using a mobile phone when driving. First, it is should be pointed out that the availability of a mobile phone in a car is of great value, for example, in emergencies and accidents. However, the results from the research covered in this review show that using a mobile phone in a car while driving impairs driving performance significantly. To exemplify, a drivers attention to traffic and traffic information is impaired and the control of the car becomes less precise and smooth when talking over a phone. The conversation in itself impairs attention and manoeuvring performance as well as the motor activities needed for phoning. Based on the research available, the present review gives numerical estimates of the disturbing effects of different aspects of mobile phoning on driving performance. Contrary to what people assume, hand-held phones have not been shown to impair driving quality more than hands free phones. Instead, in contrast to public opinion, the content of a conversation is most important in determining the degree of distraction; complex conversations disturb driving much more than simple conversations. Analyses of accidents have shown that the impairment of driving while phoning leads to an increased risk of having an accident for both hand-held and hands free mobile telephones.     

Paradoxical effects of information presentation formats and contextual interference on transfer of a complex cognitive skill

In a 2 × 2 factorial design the effects of (1) information presentation format and (2) contextual interference on training behavior, transfer performance and mental effort were studied for learning troubleshooting skills with a computer-based simulation. Participants studied information about the functioning of an alcohol distillery system (system principles) prior to practicing troubleshooting skills. Regarding the first factor, an expository (Exp) format, in which system principles, examples and a troubleshooting strategy were presented in a textual form, was compared to an inquisitory (Inq) format, in which participants had to predict the behavior of the system after they studied the system principles and in which demonstrations of the troubleshooting strategy were given. With regard to the second factor, a low contextual interference (LCI) condition in which participants practiced to diagnose types of system failures in a blocked schedule was compared to a high contextual interference (HCI) condition, in which different failure types were practiced in a random schedule. The main hypothesis is that the Inq and HCI conditions promote the development of cognitive schemata that enable learners to diagnose a malfunctioning system component by interpreting symptoms in terms of violations of system principles. Hence, they are expected to show higher transfer performance than participants in the traditional Exp and LCI conditions, who are believed to develop schemata containing associations between symptoms and malfunctioning components that are context-bound and less useful for diagnosing new failures. Contrary to the predictions, the traditional conditions (Exp and LCI) showed higher performance on a transfer test two weeks after training. Possible explanations for this result are discussed.     

Effects of training on short- and long-term skill retention in a complex multiple-task environment

The paper reports the results of an experiment on the performance and retention of a complex task. This was a computer-based simulation of the essential elements of a spacecraft's life support system. It allowed the authors to take a range of measures, including primary and secondary task performance, system intervention and information sampling strategies, mental model structure, and subjective operator state. The study compared the effectiveness of two methods of training, based on low level (procedure-based) and high level (system-based) understanding. Twenty-five participants were trained extensively on the task, then given a 1-h testing session. A second testing session was carried out 8 months after the first (with no intervening practice) with 17 of the original participants. While training had little effect on control performance, there were considerable effects on system management strategies, as well as in structure of operator's mental model. In the second testing session, the anticipated general performance decrement did not occur, though for complex faults there was an increase in selectivity towards the primary control task. The relevance of the findings for training and skill retention in real work environments is discussed in the context of a model of compensatory control.     

The effects of errors on system trust, self-confidence, and the allocation of control in route planning

The concept of trust is believed by some to compensate for feelings of uncertainty. Therefore, trust is considered to be crucial in people's decision to rely on a complex automated system to perform tasks for them. This experiment aimed to study the effects of errors on control allocation, and the mediating role of trust and self-confidence in the domain of route planning. Using a computer-based route planner, participants completed 10 route-planning trials in manual mode, and 10 in automatic mode, allowing participants to become equally experienced in operating both modes. During these so-called fixed trials, the numbers of errors in automatic as well as manual mode were systematically varied. Subsequently, participants completed six free trials, during which they were free to choose between modes. Our results showed that high automation error rates (AERs) decreased levels of system trust compared to low AERs. Conversely, high manual error rates (MERs) resulted in lower levels of self-confidence compared to low MERs, although to a lesser extent. Moreover, the difference between measures of trust and self-confidence proved to be highly predictive of the number of times automatic mode was selected during the six free trials. Additionally, results suggest a fundamental bias to trust one's own abilities over those of the system. Finally, evidence indicating a relationship between trust and self-confidence is discussed.     

Skills,rules and knowledge in aircraft maintenance: errors in context

Automatic or skill-based behaviour is generally considered to be less prone to error than behaviour directed by conscious control. However, researchers who have applied Rasmussen's skill-rule-knowledge human error framework to accidents and incidents have sometimes found that skill-based errors appear in significant numbers. It is proposed that this is largely a reflection of the opportunities for error which workplaces present and does not indicate that skill-based behaviour is intrinsically unreliable. In the current study, 99 errors reported by 72 aircraft mechanics were examined in the light of a task analysis based on observations of the work of 25 aircraft mechanics. The task analysis identified the opportunities for error presented at various stages of maintenance work packages and by the job as a whole. Once the frequency of each error type was normalized in terms of the opportunities for error, it became apparent that skill-based performance is more reliable than rule-based performance, which is in turn more reliable than knowledge-based performance. The results reinforce the belief that industrial safety interventions designed to reduce errors would best be directed at those aspects of jobs that involve rule- and knowledge-based performance.     

Safe driving in a green world: A review of driver performance benchmarks and technologies to support ‘smart’ driving

Road transport is a significant source of both safety and environmental concerns. With climate change and fuel prices increasingly prominent on social and political agendas, many drivers are turning their thoughts to fuel efficient or ‘green’ (i.e., environmentally friendly) driving practices. Many vehicle manufacturers are satisfying this demand by offering green driving feedback or advice tools. However, there is a legitimate concern regarding the effects of such devices on road safety – both from the point of view of change in driving styles, as well as potential distraction caused by the in-vehicle feedback. In this paper, we appraise the benchmarks for safe and green driving, concluding that whilst they largely overlap, there are some specific circumstances in which the goals are in conflict. We go on to review current and emerging in-vehicle information systems which purport to affect safe and/or green driving, and discuss some fundamental ergonomics principles for the design of such devices. The results of the review are being used in the Foot-LITE project, aimed at developing a system to encourage ‘smart’ – that is safe and green – driving.     

Impact of observers' experience and training on reliability of observations for a manual handling task

Observation reliability (agreement percentage and kappa coefficients) for six experienced ergonomists and six untrained participants was computed. Participants were first tested after a training session and 1 week later after an additional practice session. Two formats were used: free practice and directed exercise. Reliability was tested for 17 variables and 20 sequences using photographic and video supports. The participants were asked to indicate whether they were confident about their answer, to rate this confidence on a scale of 1 to 10, and when the confidence rating was below 8, to provide a reason for this. Experience and additional practices had no clear impact on reliability, which was excellent overall. The main reason given was that the event to be observed took place at the borderline between two classes. The observers' rating on the scale appeared to be tied to the subsequent reliability computed. The use of a confidence scale appeared to be a useful tool for forecasting observation problems.     

Occlusion as a measure for visual workload: an overview of TNO occlusion research in car driving

A process-oriented approach by systematically studying driver performance, distraction, and workload is the way to go for assessing safety effects of new telematics applications in vehicles. These systems may strive for drivers' attention and possibly lead to distraction from the primary task. Visual occlusion techniques appear to be an effective means of studying drivers' visual information processing performance. Studies to illustrate this include identifying the minimum visual information drivers need for driving (asking for visual information) and the evaluation of driver support systems such as heading control and adaptive cruise control with respect to visual workload. In other applications the occlusion technique is used to exclude 'visual array' information from the optic flow field. The temporary exclusion of part of the visual field of view was applied in evaluating the effects of different types of driver's side rearview mirrors.     

Driving intention recognition and behaviour prediction based on a double-layer hidden Markov model

We propose a model structure with a double-layer hidden Markov model (HMM) to recognise driving intention and predict driving behaviour. The upper-layer multi-dimensional discrete HMM (MDHMM) in the double-layer HMM represents driving intention in a combined working case, constructed according to the driving behaviours in certain single working cases in the lower-layer multi-dimensional Gaussian HMM (MGHMM). The driving behaviours are recognised by manoeuvring the signals of the driver and vehicle state information, and the recognised results are sent to the upper-layer HMM to recognise driving intentions. Also, driving behaviours in the near future are predicted using the likelihood-maximum method. A real-time driving simulator test on the combined working cases showed that the double-layer HMM can recognise driving intention and predict driving behaviour accurately and efficiently. As a result, the model provides the basis for pre-warning and intervention of danger and improving comfort performance.     

An evaluation of a lane support system for bus rapid transit on narrow shoulders and the relation to bus driver mental workload

The use of dedicated bus shoulders is a key method for implementing bus rapid transit (BRT) in areas that do not have the space for additional infrastructure. However, the narrow width of the bus shoulder and the need to anticipate traffic hazards in the adjacent lane can both be significant stressors for bus drivers. Bus driver mental workload and stress in response to these conditions should be a significant concern both for operational safety and driver health.

This pilot study evaluated the potential stressors of traffic density and shoulder width in the context of an express BRT service in a large US metropolitan area. In addition, the study considered the potential role of a prototype lane support system (LSS) to support vehicle control within the narrow shoulder boundaries. Ten experienced bus drivers drove an actual route with an instrumented bus equipped with and without LSS. Self-reported effort was recorded along with performance measures of speed and position control relevant to mobility and safety objectives.

Bus drivers did note stressors in the BRT environment and the prototype LSS. However, the use of the shoulder during high-density traffic conditions did improve mobility. Moreover, the LSS did enhance safety on the shoulder when there was high-density traffic in the adjacent lane. However, there was no evidence that the LSS reduced bus driver workload while operating in the narrow shoulder. Future research should consider the impact of BRT operations and support systems on bus driver mental workload and stress, and support the deployment of such devices for bus operations on shoulders during high traffic volumes.