Knowledge organization and instantiation of general terms in sentence comprehension.

Subjects had to judge whether drawings were appropriate illustrations of target nouns in sentences. These nouns were either general or more specific, but in the former case the sentence frames reduced the polysemy of the general nouns to the meaning of the corresponding specific ones. When drawings were appropriate illustrations of the target nouns, response times were of similar magnitude after sentences containing either general or specific nouns, indicating that instantiated representations had been elaborated for the general nouns. In addition, the drawings of typical instances produced faster responses than drawings of less typical instances. These findings are congruent with the assumption that instantiation depends on the long-term organization of knowledge in memory. Results from additional experiments suggest that visual imagery may contribute to, but cannot fully account for the processes behind instantiation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of color to visual memory in X-chromosome-linked dichromats

We used a recognition memory paradigm to assess the visual memory of X-chromosome-linked dichromats for color images of natural scenes. The performance of 17 protanopes and 14 deuteranopes, who lack the second (red-green opponent) subsystem of color vision, but retain the primordial (yellow-blue opponent) subsystem, was compared with that of 36 color normal observers. During the presentation phase, 48 images of natural scenes were displayed on a CRT for durations between 50 and 1000 msec. Each image was followed by a random noise mask. Half of the images were presented in color and half in black and white. In the subsequent query phase, the same 48 images were intermixed with 48 new images and the subjects had to indicate which of the images they had already seen during the presentation phase. We find that the performance of the color normal observers increases with exposure duration. However, they perform 5-10% better for colored than for black and white images, even at exposure durations as short as 50 msec. Surprisingly, performance is not impaired for the dichromats, whose recognition performance is also better for colored than for black and white images. We conclude either that X-chromosome-linked dichromats may be able to compensate for their reduced chromatic information range when viewing complex natural scenes or that the chromatic information in most natural scenes, for the durations tested, is sufficiently represented by the surviving primordial color subsystem.     

Localisation de l'interférence forme/couleur au niveau perceptuel dans une tache de type Stroop avec des stimuli-dessins.

Four studies with 24 19–35 yr old French-speaking adults examined the localization of perceptual form–color interference in a Stroop task with drawings. Results indicate that the time required to name the color of an incongruently colored object, such as a blue banana, was significantly longer than that for a neutral object (a red book). The same effect was found for identifying the color of the ink in which the names of these observed objects were printed. However, there did not appear to be a common semantic component in the interference observed in the 2 tasks. Extended practice on the task with the names of incongruently colored objects did not transfer to the task with the drawings of the same objects. The time to discriminate the colors of 2 drawings of incongruently colored objects was significantly longer than that for 2 drawings of neutral objects, suggesting that a perceptual inhibition occurred for incongruently colored objects (objects for which color was normally an integral part of the stimulus) that created a delay in perceiving the object's color. This contextual interference may be the complementary phenomenon to the object superiority effect. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parallelism in the production of noun phrases: Experiments and reaction time models.

In 3 experiments, the authors investigated the temporal coordination of the processes involved in the production of noun phrases (NPs). Speakers of German described drawings of colored objects by noun phrases with or without a determiner (e.g., [the] red table). Participants received, for varying amounts of time, advance information about either the color or the object. For a small number of nouns in the response set, advance information about the color led to shorter reaction times for no-determiner NPs than for definite-determiner NPs. For larger numbers of nouns, advance information about the object led to an additional reaction time benefit for definite-determiner NPs. A mathematical model is shown to account for these results. This model assumes that articulation can be initiated only after the grammatical encoding of the whole noun phrase has been completed, but that phonological encoding of the 1st element of an utterance is initiated as soon as the necessary grammatical information is available. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verb confrontation naming and word-picture matching in Alzheimer's disease.

Patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) were asked to name pictures and perform a multiple-choice word–picture matching task with verbs and nouns. AD patients were significantly more impaired with verbs than nouns for both naming and word–picture matching, and their patterns of semantic naming errors differed for verbs and nouns. One subgroup of AD patients was compromised on both naming and word–picture matching consistent with a semantic memory deficit. Naming was worse for verbs than for nouns in these patients, and they produced significantlv fewer hierarchically related semantic substitutions for verbs than for nouns. Other AD patients without semantic memory difficulty did not demonstrate these form class-sensitive patterns. The investigators hypothesize that form class-specific effects in AD patients' naming are due in part to differences in processing verbs and nouns in semantic memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Face recognition accuracy as a function of mode of representation.

The relative effectiveness of line drawings and photographs as ways of representing information in face reconstruction systems was compared in 2 experiments. In Exp I, 3 independent groups of college students (27 in each group) were required to identify well-known faces shown either as photographs, detailed line drawings, or outline drawings. Photographs were significantly more effective as stimuli than line drawings, which in turn were superior to outlines. In Exp II, 80 Ss aged 16–60 yrs recruited from the public participated in a recognition task. Photographs and detailed line drawings of previously unknown faces served as stimuli. Ss recognized photographs significantly more accurately than line drawings, even when the pose of the target was changed between the exposure and test series. Results are discussed in terms of the development of computer-based face reconstruction systems and theories of face recognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A scale of Negroidness.

Examined whether perceived physiognomic negroidness is a scalable dimension that might be developed for research use. 103 white and 23 black psychology students served as raters of 91 color photographs of black and white 4th and 5th grade schoolchildren. Results suggest that negroidness can be quantified. 6 female and 6 male pictures, with known scale values, were selected for the final scales of negroidness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depth perception in linear and inverse perspective pictures

The range of pictorial depth perception was tested with four pictures from the repertoire of European art, rather than the customary line drawings or photographs. These pictures included those rendered in linear perspective and inverse perspective, as well as those with different degrees of depth. Using Pandora' Box, the subjects were asked to place a lamp at the same apparent depth as objects in the pictures. The subjects did so without regard to the depiction technique. The results suggest that depth is seen in pictures both where the rules of linear perspective hold and where they have been violated.     

Action and object processing in brain-injured speakers of Chinese.

Objective: To see whether action and object processing across different tasks and modalities differs in brain-injured speakers of Chinese with varying fluency and lesion locations within the left hemisphere. Method: Words and pictures representing actions and objects were presented to a group of 33 participants whose native and/or dominant language was Mandarin Chinese: 23 patients with left-hemisphere lesions due to stroke and 10 language-, age- and education-matched healthy control participants. A set of 120 stimulus items was presented to each participant in three different forms: as black and white line drawings (for picture-naming), as written words (for reading) and as aurally presented words (for word repetition). Patients were divided into groups for two separate analyses: Analysis 1 divided and compared patients based on fluency (Fluent vs. Nonfluent) and Analysis 2 compared patients based on lesion location (Anterior vs. Posterior). Results: Both analyses yielded similar results: Fluent, Nonfluent, Anterior, and Posterior patients all produced significantly more errors when processing action (M = 0.73, SD = 0.45) relative to object (M = 0.79, SD = 0.41) stimuli, and this effect was strongest in the picture-naming task. Conclusions: As in our previous study with English-speaking participants using the same experimental design (Arévalo et al., 2007, Arévalo, Moineau, Saygin, Ludy, & Bates, 2005), we did not find evidence for a double-dissociation in action and object processing between groups with different lesion and fluency profiles. These combined data bring us closer to a more informed view of action/object processing in the brain in both healthy and brain-injured individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's comprehension of actions depicted in photographs.

Two experiments investigated comprehension of pictorial representations in 160 3–6 yr old children. In Exp I, Ss were asked to mimic the poses of children depicted in black and white photographs, to mimic the same poses depicted by the live model, and to describe the contents of the photographs. Exp II replicated the 1st experiment with line drawings and a doll. Performance was significantly better with the live model than with the photographs, drawings, or doll. A comparison among the 3 representational forms indicated that photographs were the most difficult to mimic and describe and that the doll was the least difficult to describe. Results are discussed with respect to the developing ability to interpret symbolic representations and the effects of media-specific characteristics. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Production and interpretation of pictures of houses by blind people

Subjects were exposed to a three-dimensional model of a house and were asked to draw it using a raised-line drawing kit. Independent groups of ten each of sighted controls, early-blind, and late-blind subjects were told to identify the vantage point of tangible pictures of the model, including side views, 'bird's-eye' views from above, and views involving linear perspective. The ease or difficulty of picture interpretation depended upon the nature of the tangible drawing, with much better performance being recorded for side views. Performance was poor for foreshortened 3/4 views. Early-blind subjects were particularly unlikely to recognize views from above. In a control experiment with blindfolded sighted subjects the influence of prior information was examined: some subjects were told that the drawings could consist of side view or bird's-eye, top view, or 3/4 view drawings. This experiment showed that performance can be greatly improved through prior information about the nature of the tangible pictures.     

Effect of labelling-latency of pictures in associative learning of pictorial representations and their word labels.

Investigated whether the ease of naming pictorial representations facilitates the paired-associate learning of pictures and nouns. The stimuli which consisted of 8 pairs each of picture-pictures, picture-nouns, noun-pictures, and noun-nouns were presented to 46 undergraduates. Within each of these combinations, short- and long-label latencies were manipulated on both sides of the pairs. Pictures were superior to words as stimulus items and words were recalled more easily than pictures as response items. Short latency response items were superior to long latency responses, but no main effect for latency was obtained on the stimulus side. Findings support the conceptual peg hypothesis. Data also indicate that ease of labelling pictures does facilitate associative learning but that this effect is dependent on practice. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contributions of color to recognition memory for natural scenes.

The authors used a recognition memory paradigm to assess the influence of color information on visual memory for images of natural scenes. Subjects performed 5-10% better for colored than for black-and-white images independent of exposure duration. Experiment 2 indicated little influence of contrast once the images were suprathreshold, and Experiment 3 revealed that performance worsened when images were presented in color and tested in black and white, or vice versa, leading to the conclusion that the surface property color is part of the memory representation. Experiments 4 and 5 exclude the possibility that the superior recognition memory for colored images results solely from attentional factors or saliency. Finally, the recognition memory advantage disappears for falsely colored images of natural scenes: The improvement in recognition memory depends on the color congruence of presented images with learned knowledge about the color gamut found within natural scenes. The results can be accounted for within a multiple memory systems framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chromatic imaging: An effect of mental colouring on recognition memory.

In 3 experiments, 150 young adults saw black-and-white line drawings and imagined them filled in with a specified color. A surprise recognition test followed, with the drawings shown colored in. Drawings shown in the color in which they had been imagined were more likely to be identified than those shown in a different color. (French abstract) (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychiatric history and symptom differences in black and white depressed patients.

Compared 159 black psychiatric patients with 555 white patients on a battery of social, personality, and psychiatric history variables, as well as presenting symptoms. In making these comparisons, race differences in age, social class status, and sex were controlled. Both black and white depressed patients were remarkably similar on presenting symptoms, especially the core symptoms of depression, when the groups were equated or controlled for age and social class differences. However, some differences did emerge on a number of hostility variables. There was a greater tendency toward negativism and the introjection of anger in blacks than in whites. In addition, depressed black males indicated that they were more likely than their white counterparts to strike back, either verbally or physically, when they felt their rights were being violated. There was also a very high incidence of suicide threats or attempts among the black males. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Picture memory in monkeys.

Three squirrel monkeys were shown lists of 3 items drawn from a pool of 150 slides containing colored pictures of natural objects and scenes. A delayed matching technique was used to probe recognition memory for each serial position on different trials. Four experiments on the effects of picture-exposure time and off time were conducted. In agreement with human picture memory experiments, accuracy improved as exposure duration increased from 0.3 to 6 sec. In contrast to research on humans, off time after picture exposure did not improve accuracy relative to a condition with no off time. Further, a comparison of different off-time conditions showed no difference between off times spent in darkness and off times filled either with filler pictures or white light. This finding differs from the well-known observation that illumination interpolated between sample and comparison stimuli interferes with delayed matching. ( French abstract) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching children to use schematic drawings to solve addition and subtraction word problems.

Two classes of second graders of average and above-average mathematics ability were taught to use differing schematic drawings to represent differing categories of addition and subtraction word problems. Children entered the three-digit numbers used in the problems into the schematic drawings and then were to use the drawings to facilitate the choice of the solution procedure. The children were able to make the correct drawing for a given category, usually inserted the numbers from the problem into a schematic drawing correctly, and usually selected the correct solution strategy for the problem. There was little support for the hypotheses that children use a single part-part-whole schema to solve either all categories of problems or the more difficult "Change" problems. The most difficult problems were those in which the underlying semantic subtractive problem category ("Change-Get-Less" and "Compare") conflicted with the addition solution strategy required to solve the problem. The good-to-excellent posttest performance on most of the possible kinds of addition and subtraction word problems indicates that most of these problems are within the zone of proximal development of second graders of average and above-average mathematics ability. Thus American textbooks can include many of the more difficult word problems, as do textbooks in the Soviet Union. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic and perceptual errors in aphasics' freehand category drawing.

Stroke patients were asked to draw instances of familiar superordinates, for example, fruit and tools. As a group, fluent aphasics produced less representative exemplars than did nonfluent aphasics. One third of the fluent aphasics produced category violations in 24% of their drawings. Their violations were always related to the target superordinate, paralleling their oral performance on a category naming task. Their drawings of category violations expressed perceptual attributes less accurately than did their drawings of target exemplars. Category-specific difficulties were extremely rare. The remaining fluent aphasics produced very few category violations and drew perceptually accurate pictures but did exhibit reduced naming fluency. Some fluent aphasics seem to be compromised at processing the information in semantic memory that underlies such concepts as fruit, whereas others seem to be impaired at lexical retrieval. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Blacks supervising whites: A study of interracial difficulties in working together in a simulated organization.

Investigated interracial difficulties of blacks and whites working together, when blacks are in a supervisory position over whites. 45 groups of male undergraduates were supervised by blacks, and 45 were supervised by whites. In each group, 2 subordinates played a business game with either a black or a white supervisor and were observed by 2 white Os. Results indicate that (a) the performance ratings of black supervisors were significantly poorer than those of white supervisors; (b) subordinates supervised by blacks behaved differently than subordinates supervised by whites, and some of these behaviors appeared to hinder the effectiveness of the black supervisor; and (c) subordinates with negative racial bias gave poorer ratings to black supervisors than subordinates with liberal racial attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The rise and fall of word retrieval across the lifespan.

Picture-naming performance for 48 black-and-white drawings was investigated in 1,145 Hebrew speakers, ages 5–86. Both a linear and a curvilinear quadratic model fit the data, reflecting an increase in ability with age as well as an increase followed by a decrease beyond that linear rise. Late-life performance was more affected by access difficulty than was early-life performance, with children's responses limited by lexicon size. Immigrants performed more poorly than nonimmigrants, but an identical correlation between participant age and naming scores was found in both groups. We discuss the role of vocabulary funds and controlled access in naming pictures throughout life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)