Mechanisms of resurgence of an extinguished instrumental behavior.

Four experiments examined “resurgence” of an instrumental behavior after extinction. All experiments involved three phases in which rats were (1) trained to press one lever for food reward, (2) trained to press a second lever while the first leverpress was extinguished, and (3) tested under conditions in which neither leverpress was rewarded. In each experiment, the first leverpress recovered (resurged) in Phase 3, when the second leverpress was extinguished. The results demonstrated that resurgence occurred when the schedules of reinforcement employed in Phases 1 and 2 yielded either an upshift, downshift, or no change in the rate of reward delivery between those phases. They also demonstrated that initial training on the first lever was required to observe a robust increase in pressing at test (resurgence is thus an associative effect). Resurgence was shown to occur over a wide variety of schedules of reinforcement in Phase 2 (including ratio, interval, and leverpress-independent schedules). Finally, the results do not support the view that resurgence occurs because response competition suppresses leverpressing of the first lever during extinction. Overall, they are consistent with the view that resurgence is a renewal effect in which extinction of an instrumental behavior is specific to the context provided by rewarded leverpressing during the extinction phase. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Autonomic feedback: The perception of autonomic activity.

The 19 highest scoring Ss and the 13 lowest scoring on a questionnaire dealing with autonomic self-perceptions were exposed to an intellectual stress situation. Subsequently they were interviewed as to their autonomic perceptions. Records of the 14 Ss who obtained high scores, and the 9 Ss who obtained low scores on both the questionnaire and interview were then examined for level of autonomic reactivity, using measurements of heart rate, psychogalvanic response, respiration, face temperature, and blood volume. Results showed: positive correlations between the questionnaire and other paper-and-pencil tests of anxiety reactions; perceivers reporting a high level of autonomic feedback showed significantly greater autonomic reactivity than low perceivers; high perceivers tended to overestimate their autonomic responses, low perceivers to under-estimate them. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choosing to be afraid: Preferences for fear as a function of goal pursuit.

According to an instrumental approach to emotion regulation (M. Tamir, in press), people may not always prefer to feel pleasant emotions and avoid unpleasant ones. Instead, they may be motivated to experience even unpleasant emotions when they might be useful for goal attainment. Given that fear serves to promote successful avoidance, these studies tested this hypothesis by examining preferences for fear in preparation for avoidance goal pursuits. Consistent with the predictions of the instrumental approach, participants preferred to increase their level of fear as they prepared to pursue an avoidance goal. Such preferences were higher than preferences for either excitement or anger and were unique to avoidance (vs. approach or confrontational) goal pursuits. Given the aversive nature of fear, these findings clearly demonstrate that people may sometimes prefer to feel bad if doing so can lead to instrumental benefits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concerning instrumental autonomic conditioning: A rejoinder.

A. Crider, G. Schwartz, and S. Shnidman's (see 43:8) reply to E. S. Katkin and E. N. Murray's (see 42:10) review of instrumental autonomic conditioning makes several valid points but also contains many differences in interpretation based on a contrasting theoretical position. It is contended herein that the acceptability of "facts" as "facts" and "evidence" as "evidence" is determined often by predisposing epistemological orientations. Many of Crider et al.'s points are well taken, but the evidence on instrumental autonomic conditioning in humans remains far less convincing than the evidence available from animal studies. The methodological questions raised by Katkin and Murray's earlier paper appear to be clarified substantially by some of Crider et al.'s comments; however, the clarification has not reduced the danger of artifacts being interpreted as substantive evidence. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Modification of dysfunctional patterns of sexual response through automatic arousal and false physiological feedback": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by E. M. Palace (Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 1995[Aug], Vol 63[4], 604–615). The shaded bars in Figure 3 are not clearly distinguishable as printed. A new Figure 3 is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1995-44916-001.) Examined effects of autonomic arousal (AUA) and positive-false vaginal blood volume (VBV) to identify how cognitive and physiological mechanisms mediate sexual arousal, and can be modified to reverse dysfunctional processes. 64 women were randomly assigned to autonomic arousal-evoking or neutral-control preexposure film stimulus paired with an erotic stimulus, positive-false VBV feedback or no feedback. Results revealed general AUA enhanced genital arousal; false feedback increased, expectations of sexual arousal, actual vasocongestive response, the subsequent experience of sexual arousal, heightened expectations with false feedback were followed by an increase in actual genital response within 30 s, and effects of AUA and false feedback enhanced expectations and subsequent genital arousal to levels comparable with those of sexually functional women within 3 min. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is autonomic neuropathy a risk factor for severe hypoglycaemia? The EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study

The hypothesis that diabetic patients with autonomic neuropathy are at increased risk of severe hypoglycaemia was examined in an epidemiological study of over 3000 IDDM patients in Europe (EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study). Autonomic function was assessed by two standard cardiovascular tests: change in heart rate and systolic blood pressure on standing. Severe hypoglycaemia was defined as an attack serious enough to require the help of another person. Compared to patients (68%) reporting no attacks in the last year, those reporting one or more attacks were older (34.0 +/- 10.7 vs 32.1 +/- 9.9 years, mean +/- SD, p < 0.0001), had had diabetes for a longer period (16.6 +/- 9.5 vs 13.8 +/- 9.1 years, p < 0.0001), had better glycaemic control (HbA1c 6.4 +/- 1.8 vs 6.9 +/- 1.9%, p < 0.0001) and were more likely (p = 0.002) to have abnormal responses to both autonomic tests (13.0 vs 7.7%). A single abnormal autonomic response was not associated with an increased risk of severe hypoglycaemia. The odds ratio for severe hypoglycaemia in people with abnormal responses to both autonomic tests, compared to those with normal responses, was 1.7 (95% confidence interval 1.3, 2.2) after controlling for age, duration of diabetes, glycaemic control and study centre. In conclusion, a combined autonomic deficit in heart rate and blood pressure responses to standing is associated with only a modest increase in the risk of severe spontaneous hypoglycaemia. Although the increase in risk is not large, severe hypoglycaemia was a frequently reported event in this study. IDDM patients with deficient autonomic responses who strive for tight glycaemic control may therefore be at particular risk of severe hypoglycaemia.     

Autonomic dysreflexia during urodynamics

Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is an acute syndrome characterised by inappropriate and massive autonomic response that occurs in patients with spinal cord injury above the T6 level. AIMS: to evaluate the incidence of AD during cystometry and the relationships with clinical and urodynamic features. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Forty-eight spinal cord injury patients were studied by neurological and urological examination and urodynamic evaluation with concurrent recording of blood pressure, heart rate and symptoms and signs of AD. Patients were considered to have AD if blood pressure reached values higher than 150/100 mmHg. RESULTS: All the patients showed a significant increase of both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, although only 20 showed pressure values higher than 150/100 mmHg (in seven of them without AD symptoms). AD was more frequent in cervical patients (P = 0.034), but did not correlate with any other clinical features: sex ratio, age, disease duration, completeness of lesion, incidence of detrusor hyperreflexia/areflexia and detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia, voiding modalities, usage of anticholinergic drugs. In three patients blood pressure increase began when uninhibited contraction started, in 11 it was coincident with uninhibited contraction peak and in the other six it appeared at maximum bladder capacity. CONCLUSIONS: (1) during urodynamic evaluation all the patients with lesion level above T6 showed signs of sympathetic stimulation, although only some showed dangerous blood pressure values; (2) the relationship between urodynamic data and dysreflexia crisis shows that both the presence of detrusor uninhibited contractions and bladder distension are able to stimulate the crisis; (3) treatment with anticholinergic drugs is not sufficient to prevent autonomic dysreflexia starting from the bladder, unless it induces detrusor areflexia. These patients are at risk of developing autonomic dysreflexia following bladder distension.     

Role of cyclin E and cyclin E-dependent kinase in mitogenic stimulation by cementum-derived growth factor in human fibroblasts

Cementum-derived growth factor (CGF) is a 14 kDa polypeptide sequestered in tooth cementum. It is an IGF-I like molecule that is weakly mitogenic to fibroblasts, but its mitogenic action is synergistically potentiated in the presence of epidermal growth factor (EGF) or serum. We have examined whether the CGF affects cyclin E levels and the activity of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) associated with this cyclin, and whether these changes contribute to the synergism in mitogenic activity between CGF and EGF. Optimal DNA synthesis by serum-starved human gingival fibroblasts required the presence of CGF for 0-12 h and EGF for 0-3 h. Therefore, cells were serum starved for 48 h and then exposed to CGF, EGF, or CGF + EGF. Cells incubated with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) served as positive controls. At various time points after the addition of growth factors, cyclin E levels were examined by Western analysis. Cdk associated with cyclin E was immunoprecipitated with anti-cyclin E antibody and kinase activity was measured using H1 histone as substrate. Cyclin E and the H1 kinase activity levels increased after 8-12 h in cells exposed to CGF and in positive controls exposed to 10% FBS. They returned to basal level 4 h later in cells exposed to CGF alone, whereas in the presence of CGF + EGF and FBS they remained elevated for up to 20 h. The cyclin E levels did not increase in the presence of EGF alone. Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21cip1 and p27kip1 were barely detectable in these cells. Fibroblasts transfected with LXSN-cyclin E, a retroviral vector containing cyclin E cDNA, overexpressed cyclin E and their steady-state cyclin E-Cdk activity was higher than control cells. DNA synthesis by cyclin E overexpressing cells was higher, but optimal DNA synthesis by these cells required the presence of CGF and EGF. These results show that CGF action involves an increase in the levels of cyclin E and E-Cdk activity and that the higher levels are maintained in the presence of both CGF and EGF. They also indicate that sustained high cyclin E levels and Cdk2 activity during G1 phase are necessary, but not sufficient, for optimal mitogenic response in human fibroblasts.     

Postconditioning devaluation of a reinforcer affects instrumental responding.

Three experiments with 68 male Holtzman rats investigated performance of an instrumental response following postlearning changes in the value of the reinforcer, using a within-S design. Exps I and II used a conditioning manipulation (pairing with a toxin), and Exp III employed a motivational procedure (satiation) to reduce the reinforcer value. In both cases, performance of the instrumental response was substantially attenuated during a subsequent extinction test. Results suggest that these devaluation effects are mediated by the instrumental contingency and that a reasonably detailed representation of the reinforcer is encoded in instrumental learning. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pavlovian analysis of avoidance conditioning in the goldfish (Carassius auratus).

Conducted 2 experiments in which 144 and 54 goldfish, respectively, were trained in a shuttlebox with light as CS and brief shock as UCS. Performance was measured in terms of "initial response" to the CS (at least 1 crossing of the hurdle on any trial) and-where the CS was not terminated by the initial response-in terms of "multiple response" to the CS (more than 1 crossing on any trial). The level of initial responding was as high in classically conditioned Ss (shocked on every trial) as in avoidance Ss, whether or not the CS was terminated by response, but lower in control Ss, yoked with the avoidance Ss, and lower also in punished Ss (shocked only if they responded). Multiple responding was negligible in avoidance Ss, but common in classically conditioned and in punished Ss. Results can be accounted for in purely Pavlovian terms, no reference to instrumental learning being required. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender diagnosticity: A new Bayesian approach to gender-related individual differences.

Gender diagnosticity refers to the Bayesian probability that an individual is predicted to be male or female on the basis of some set of gender-related diagnostic indicators. Gender diagnostic probabilities were compared from occupational preference ratings made by 117 male and 110 female Ss. Ss also completed the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and were assessed on a number of gender-related criterion variables. Gender diagnostic probabilities proved to be factorially distinct from PAQ and BSRI masculinity and femininity and generally displayed greater predictive utility than did masculinity and femininity. Unlike existing scales, gender diagnosticity measures are not based on gender stereotypes, and they do not reify gender-related individual differences or freeze them into specific constructs such as instrumental or expressive traits. Furthermore, they are well suited to developmental and cross-cultural research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of adrenaline, noradrenaline and acetylcholine on rabbit and human uterine activity in vivo (author's transl)

Effects of estrogen (abbr. as E), Estrogen + Progesterone (E + P) and autonomic nerve trophic drugs on uterus were investigated in rabbit and human in vivo and the following results were obtained. 1) Spontaneous contraction in cornu and cervix of E treated rabbit were stronger than in those during pregnancy or treated with E + P. 2) 10(-5) g/kg Adrenaline caused a uniform response pattern in cornu and cervix of E treated rabbit, and the pattern could be divided into three phases. Phase I is supposed to be the contraction response through the alpha receptor, and phase II is presumed as the response that comprises a part of element identical with alpha adrenergic response, while phase III is the relaxation response through the beta 2 receptor. 3) Acetylcholine (ACh) 10(-3) g/kg and Neostigmine 10(-5) g/kg caused augmentation of contraction both in cornu and cervix of rabbit, but this effect was blocked by Atropine, suggesting the presence of parasympathetic control in cornu and cervix. 4) In human corpus and cervix, Phenylephrine and ACh augmented contraction but Terbutaline had reducing contraction, showing the similar phenomenon found in rabbit. From this, it was proven that the similar autonomic nerve controls could be present both in rabbit and human.     

Associations between the discriminative stimulus and the reinforcer in instrumental learning.

In three experiments we examined whether reinforcement of a response in the presence of a discriminative stimulus (S{d}) resulted in associations between the S{d} and the reinforcer. In Experiments 1 and 2, animals were given food pellets contingent on responding in the presence of one S{d}, and sucrose contingent on responding in the presence of a different S{d}. Next, they were trained to make two new instrumental responses, one reinforced with pellets and one with sucrose. Finally, those responses were tested in the presence of S{d}s. The presence of S{d}-reinforcer associations was inferred from the preferential enhancement of the S{d} of performance of the instrumental response trained with the same reinforcer. In Experiment 3 we compared the transfer obtained with an S{d} and a Pavlovian excitor (CS+). Both stimuli showed preferential transfer on the basis of reinforcer identity, but the level of enhancement was lower for the CS+. These results show that the S{d} provides information about the identity of the reinforcer earned by a response in the normal course of instrumental learning. Several ways in which that knowledge might be encoded are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age Differences in Emotional Reactivity: The Sample Case of Sadness.

Past studies have suggested that the intensity of subjective reactions to emotion-arousing stimuli remains stable, whereas the magnitude of autonomic reactions declines with age. The goal of the present studies was to investigate whether this evidence will generalize to newly edited films dealing with age-relevant themes such as the loss of loved ones. In Study 1, greater self-reported sadness was found in older than in younger adults in response to all films. Findings of Study 2, which were based on an independent sample, replicated those of Study 1. In addition, 6 indicators of autonomic nervous system activity were assessed. Young and old adults did not differ in their autonomic reactions to the films. This evidence suggests that when older people are exposed to stimuli featuring themes that are relevant to their age group, they show greater subjective and physiological reactions than would be expected on the basis of past research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abnormal autonomic stress responses in obstructive sleep apnoea are reversed by nasal continuous positive airway pressure

Obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) is associated with abnormalities in autonomic stress tests, which are tests of cardiovascular response in the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The level of abnormality has been related to the level of overnight arterial oxygen saturation (Sa,O2). We have studied ANS function pre- and post-treatment with nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) in six males with moderately severe or severe OSA (apnoea/hypopnoea index (AHI) median 51 (range 14-74 events.h-1 of sleep). Tests consisted of heart rate responses to Valsalva manoeuvre, deep breathing, and change of posture from lying to standing. In addition, systolic blood pressure (SBP) response to standing and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) response to handgrip were studied. Each abnormal test (compared to published normal values) scored +1.0 and each marginal test result (90-95% confidence interval for normals) scored +0.5. A total score was calculated for the five tests performed in the evening and morning (maximum score 10 per patient). Patients had been receiving treatment for more than 1 year (median 471 (389-624) days) and objective compliance was monitored by a clock counter in the nCPAP machines. Five of six patients had regularly used nCPAP (mean 7.8 h.night-1) and all showed a normalization in ANS test score: pre-nCPAP 2 (1-4.5), post-nCPAP 0.2 (0-0.5) (p < 0.05, Wilcoxon signed rank test). One poorly compliant subject (No. 6; nCPAP 3 h.night-1) had a deterioration in ANS test score: 1 pre-nCPAP to 1.5 post-nCPAP. The improvement in ANS test score in the five compliant patients was positively correlated with an improvement in mean Sa,O2 during sleep posttreatment. We conclude that successful treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea leads to normalization of impaired autonomic stress responses.     

Peptides as neurotransmitters in vascular autonomic neurons

1. Neuropeptides are present in the majority of autonomic neurons projecting to blood vessels, where they are co-localized with non-peptide transmitters and sometimes with other peptides. 2. Neuropeptides are released from vasoconstrictor and vasodilator nerve terminals after high frequency stimulation ( > 2-5Hz) with trains of impulses. 3. Neuropeptides can have potent post-synaptic effects on vascular tone, but often these effects are restricted to selected regions of the vasculature. 4. Post-synaptic effects of neuropeptides tend to be more slowly-developing and more long-lasting than those of non-peptide transmitters. 5. Autonomic vasoconstrictor and vasodilator responses often have multiple phases, with the faster phases being mediated by non-peptide transmitters and the slower phases medicated predominantly by one or more neuropeptides. 6. Some neuropeptides do not seem to have post-synaptic effects in a particular vascular bed, but can have presynaptic actions on neurotransmitter release. 7. Neuropeptides form an important component of the repertoire of neurotransmitters used by vascular autonomic neurons to regulate regional blood flow in response to a range of physiological stimuli.     

Food-reinforced inhibition of conditioned salivation in dogs.

12 mongrel dogs salivated to a tone that was followed by food, but not to a noise for which there was an added response dependency. The noise was followed by food if and only if they did not salivate. The addition of this response dependency vitiated the classically conditioned response to the noise. A yoked-control group of 6 Ss receiving the same sequences of stimuli and food salivated to both the tone and noise stimuli. It is generally concluded that neither the effects of stimulus-dependent reinforcement nor the effects of response-dependent reinforcement are restricted to either skeletal or autonomic responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Caffeine enhances modulation of parasympathetic nerve activity in humans: quantification using power spectral analysis

We investigated changes in autonomic nerve activity following caffeine intake by power spectral analysis of R-R intervals of heartbeats in humans. A beverage containing 240 mg of caffeine or a control beverage was given to 10 healthy volunteers, and R-R intervals were measured while subjects were sitting and controlling their respiration at a constant rate. After consumption of the caffeine-containing beverage, a transient and significant increase (P < 0.001) in spectral integrated values (areas under the curve) of high frequency power (high component, HC) was observed, and at 30 min the value was significantly greater than in controls (P < 0.02), suggesting an increase in vagal autonomic nerve activity. The effect of caffeine was also examined using decaffeinated coffee supplemented with exogenous caffeine (2 mg/kg body wt). A transient and significant increase (P < 0.0001) in HC was observed, and the value was significantly greater (P < 0.02) than when subjects consumed decaffeinated coffee without supplemental caffeine. The ratio of HC to total integrated value (which is also used as a selective indicator of vagal activity) was also significantly higher (P < 0.04) after caffeine consumption. Physiological variables accompanying the change in autonomic nerve activity (i.e., blood pressure, surface body temperature and heart rate) were not significantly affected by caffeine intake. These results suggest that power spectral analysis of heartbeat R-R intervals is an effective and noninvasive method for detecting subtle changes in autonomic nerve activity in response to food intake.     

Sex differences and self-report of fear: A psychophysiological assessment.

Hypothesized that, because of differential social learning, females would report fear of spiders more frequently than males would but that males selected for equal self-report of fear would show greater autonomic responsivity than females to slides of spiders. Four groups of 10 undergraduates each (male and female fearful and nonfearful) were assembled. They were told to wait quietly for 10 min, after which they would see slides of tarantulas. Skin conductance level was measured during the anticipatory period and in response to each of the slides. Results confirm the hypothesis that more women would report fear than men but failed to confirm the hypothesis that there would be differential autonomic responding. Fearful Ss, irrespective of sex, showed prolonged autonomic arousal during the entire anticipatory period, whereas nonfearful Ss showed increasing autonomic arousal as the time for the 1st slide presentation approached. This finding is discussed in terms of coping theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychopathy in instrumental and reactive violent offenders.

Can violent offenders who commit acts of instrumental aggression for goal-oriented purposes such as robbery be distinguished from those who commit acts of reactive (or hostile) aggression in response to provocation? Because violent offenders often have a history of both instrumental and reactive aggression, this study distinguished between offenders with a history of at least 1 instrumental violent offense and offenders with a history of reactive violent offenses. Two studies tested the hypothesis that instrumental offenders would score higher than reactive offenders and nonviolent offenders on R. D. Hare's (1991) Psychopathy Checklist. The first study sample consisted of 106 violent and nonviolent offenders recruited from a medium-security correctional facility. The second study sample consisted of 50 violent offenders referred for pretrial forensic evaluation. In both samples, instrumental offenders could be reliably distinguished from reactive offenders on the basis of violent crime behavior and level of psychopathy. Group differences could not be attributed to participant age, race, length of incarceration, or extent of prior criminal record. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)