Performance, cognition, and physiological responding in test anxiety.

Autonomic (skin conductance and resistance, heart rate, and heart rate variability), self-report (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and causal attributions of task performance), and performance (modified Stroop Color–Word Test and 8 difficult anagrams) measures of anxiety were collected from 36 test-anxious and 36 non-test-anxious (Test Anxiety Scale) female undergraduates in an analog testing situation under 3 experimental conditions. High-test-anxious (HTA) Ss performed more poorly and reported higher levels of anxious arousal and worry in the analog testing situation than low-test-anxious (LTA) Ss. Also, self-evaluations of test performance made by HTA Ss differed from those made by LTA Ss in being more negative and unrelated to actual test performance. However, HTA and LTA Ss showed virtually identical changes in electrodermal activity and heart rate in response to the stress of the testing situation. Only heart rate variability, which appeared to reflect differences in the cognitive and attentional responses of the test anxiety groups, successfully differentiated HTA and LTA Ss. Results support cognitive formulations of test anxiety and indicate that deficits in information processing associated with test anxiety do not result from maladaptive levels of autonomic arousal. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Worry, emotionality, and task-generated interference in test anxiety: An empirical test of attentional theory.

Investigated sources of interference in highly test anxious Ss performing under evaluative stress. 185 college students were administered the Test Anxiety Scale. Those from the upper (34 Ss) and lower (34 Ss) 30% of the distribution solved difficult anagrams under 2 evaluative conditions: high stress (evaluative) and low stress (nonevaluative). Major findings are that the high-anxiety/high-stress group (a) reported more anxiety during testing; (b) rated themselves, their abilities, and the task more negatively; (c) solved fewer anagrams; (d) estimated spending less time on task; (e) experienced more interference from anxiety; and (f) reported greater distraction of attention to heightened autonomic arousal (emotionality), worrisome thoughts (worry), and task-produced competing responses (task-generated interference) than did either the high-anxiety/low-stress or low-anxiety/high-stress group. Findings are interpreted in terms of attentional theories of anxiety. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety arousing effects of inappropriate crowding.

Evaluated the anxiety arousing effects of inappropriate crowding in a dyadic experimental setting. 48 female undergraduates were presented 8 Make A Picture Story test settings, containing 2 doll figures accompanied by a brief narrative describing the situation. Ss rated the amount of dysphoria they believed the female figure would feel in each setting. Ss were run under either an inappropriately crowded or appropriately spaced seating arrangement. Results indicate that crowded Ss projected more anxiety in their ratings of the figures than did the uncrowded Ss, with the effects becoming more pronounced during the latter 1/2 of the experimental period. (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety and visual vigilance.

Conducted a visual vigilance task (VVT) to determine sensitivity and criterion measures for 20 male and 20 female undergraduate students scoring high or low in test anxiety under either test or no-test conditions. Ss, who were classified as high or low on the basis of the Test Anxiety Scale, were instructed to report the occurrence of brief visual signals over a 36-min period of continuous watchfulness. The VVT was described to half the Ss as a measure of ability on which they were being tested; to the other half, it was described as an investigation of the usefulness of the procedure for future research. Findings show that the detection rate declined across the 36 min of the task among Ss high in test anxiety who believed that they were being tested and in Ss low in test anxiety who did not. False detection rates revealed no significant differences among conditions. Analysis of sensitivity to signals according to statistical decision theory revealed low sensitivity in both the high-anxiety test and low-anxiety/no-test conditions than in the other 2. Analysis of decisional criteria showed that Ss in the high-anxiety test condition were more conservative in setting a criterion than Ss in the other 3 conditions. No sex differences were found. Results are discussed in terms of an elaboration of I. G. Sarason's (1979) model of test anxiety. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of situational and instructional demand on indices of speech anxiety.

Assessed the effects of contextual (experimental location) and instructional cues on behavioral, self-report, and physiological indices of speech anxiety. 42 male and 48 female undergraduates were randomly assigned within sex to 1 of 4 conditions in the 2 * 2 design: (a) fear-anxiety clinic, (b) fear-speech laboratory, (c) simulate relaxation therapy-anxiety clinic, and (d) simulate relaxation therapy-speech laboratory. The clinic setting produced more behavioral anxiety than the laboratory setting. The fear test instructions produced both more behavioral and self-report anxiety than the simulate relaxation therapy instructions. The fear-clinic condition produced the greatest behavioral anxiety. No significant differences were obtained for the physiological measures. The demand and expectancy effects were comparable to those obtained for rat, spider, and snake phobic Ss in earlier studies. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Therapist warmth and status in the systematic desensitization of test anxiety.

Randomly assigned 20 test-anxious undergraduates (as determined by the Sarason-Ganzer Test Anxiety Scale and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) to 4 systematic desensitization conditions, representing 2 levels each of therapist warmth and status. Ratings by treated Ss and independent judges confirmed that the experimental warmth and status manipulations had been successful. Comparisons with 10 untreated, high test anxiety control Ss indicate that treated Ss evidenced significantly greater reductions in both test and trait anxiety. With treated Ss, changes in both test and trait anxiety were greatest in the 2 higher warmth conditions. There were no significant effects of therapist status. Ss ratings of satisfaction with treatment and likelihood of return to desensitization treatment should new problems occur were also highest in the 2 higher warmth conditions. Reasons for the differential effectiveness of the warmth and status factors are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among manifest anxiety, response to stress, and the perception of autonomic activity.

Recorded the GSRs of a total of 48 male undergraduates with high or low anxiety levels (as measured by the MA scale), during exposure to a mild ego-involving stress or a nonstress condition. After an initial rest period, Ss in the stress condition were asked to identify their own "emotional responses" while monitored by a "lie detector." Results indicate that high-anxiety Ss showed a significant increase in GSR rate in the stress period when compared with low-anxiety Ss. Nonstress Ss showed no difference as a function of anxiety level. It is concluded that scores on the MA scale reflect "reactive" anxiety, the autonomic components of which are differentially elicited by ego-involving stress situations. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of anxiety level and psychological stress on verbal learning.

"It was predicted that under neutral conditions high anxiety (high drive) Ss would exhibit a performance superior to that of low anxiety (low drive) Ss on a paired-associate learning task with minimal intratask interference but that under conditions of psychological stress (report of inadequate prior performance) high anxiety Ss, due to the greater arousal of interfering extratask responses, would no longer exhibit the superiority found under neutral conditions. Results indicated that while the high anxiety Ss under neutral instructions were significantly superior to the low anxious, as predicted, and the Ss operating under stress were inferior to their neutral controls, the predicted interaction between anxiety level and stress was not found." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effet du niveau de peur, de la nature des consignes et d'un re-test lors d'un test d'approche comportementale.

56 16–22 yr old female students with either a moderate or a strong fear of harmless snakes were selected on the basis of a combined score from the Fear Survey Schedule and another fear questionnaire. The 2 experimental groups were submitted twice to a test of behavioral approach whereas a control group was submitted only once to the test. For each level of fear, half of the Ss were given neutral instructions to approach the stimulus and the other half were strongly urged to approach it and go through the whole series of steps of the approach test. Ss in the experimental groups received the same instructions on both test occasions. Results show a retest effect (i.e., Ss were less fearful in the 2nd test), but no significant effect due to the type of instructions. Ss with the higher level of fear showed less approach behavior, went more slowly through the steps of the approach test, and verbally expressed stronger anxiety. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactive effects of test anxiety, test difficulty, and feedback.

Examined interactive effects of item difficulty, test anxiety, and failure feedback in a study of 67 undergraduates (mean age 20.1 yrs) using multiple-choice verbal aptitude items. Ss' levels of test anxiety were measured on the Achievement Anxiety Test and the Test Anxiety Scale. Ss were then randomly assigned to receive either a hard or an easy test either with or without immediate feedback. Results indicate that ability estimates can be affected in complex ways by the examinee's anxiety level. The least anxious Ss in the sample did best on a very hard test, and moderately anxious Ss did best on an easy test, whereas the most anxious Ss did poorly on both tests. In addition, it was found that immediate feedback improved performance, especially for Ss given an easy test. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety and perceptual structure: Individual differences in neuropsychological function.

Studied the cognitive performance of 24 high and 36 low trait anxious undergraduates under conditions of high and low situational stress, using tasks requiring greater contribution of the right or left hemisphere. In addition, a perceptual task was adapted from visual information processing research to assess Ss' global or analytic approaches to perception; if anxiety increased the left hemisphere's contribution to perception, anxious Ss might be expected to be more analytic and detail oriented. Results show no significant differences on left hemisphere tasks but a significant interaction of trait by state anxiety for right hemisphere tasks: Low trait Ss performed better and high trait Ss performed more poorly under situational stress. Trait anxiety showed a significant main effect on visual information processing strategy, low Ss tending to be more global and high Ss tending to process the stimulus analytically. Results support the utility of a neuropsychological model in describing the effects of emotion on perception. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intrinsic vs. extrinsic job orientation and reported anxiety under different task conditions.

Identified 192 male undergraduates, 96 intrinsically oriented (IO) and 96 extrinsically oriented (EO). Each group was divided into 4 comparable subgroups. 2 of the subgroups attempted to solve 40 simple anagrams, 1 alone and 1 observed, while the other 2 worked on 30 difficult anagrams under the same 2 conditions. Each of the 8 subgroups was further dichotomized into 12 low and 12 high anxious Ss. The experiment involved a 2 (IO vs. EO) * 2 (low vs. high anxiety) * 2 (alone vs. observed) * 2 (simple vs. difficult problems) analysis of variance design. Results show that low anxious EO Ss performed better than high anxious EO Ss in all conditions, while the low anxious IO Ss performed better than the high anxious IO Ss only in the alone simple task condition. No significant differences were found with regard to satisfaction. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of experimentally aroused achievement motivation to academic achievement anxiety.

180 Ss, balanced for sex, were administered the Achievement Anxiety Test (AAT) under experimental conditions producing either minimal or high arousal of achievement motivation. Regression of scholastic aptitude and AAT scores on grade-point average (GPA) showed both AAT scales accounting for the same variance in GPA. Analyses of variance of AAT scores showed no sex differences, but highly significant main effects for experimental condition and level of scholastic aptitude. It was concluded that test anxiety is a unidimensional construct, and that the AAT is a measure of anxiety aroused by stress cues present during test taking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anti-Semitism, distraction and physical aggression.

Examined the aggressive responses of persons who varied in level of anti-Semitism and who were either distracted or not distracted from an insulter. 34 male undergraduates, chosen as Ss through a questionnaire which included the 10-item Anti-Semitism Scale and the 28-item California F Scale, participated in a paired associate learning task in which their performance was demeaned by a tape recorded series of disparaging remarks presumably given by their peer. Following this, critical Ss either relaxed under conditions where voice and movement cues from their insulter were heard, or Ss observed a film designed to distract them from their insulter. The critical Ss were then requested to teach their peer a paired associate list under conditions in which they administered shock to their partner. Results of the 3 * 2 * 3 repeated measures analysis of variance with 3 levels of anti-Semitism, 2 distraction conditions, and 3 trials indicate that distraction reduced the intensity of shock delivered to the peer. Ss tended to rate themselves as less annoyed and less anxious under distraction conditions. Ss varying in anti-Semitism did not differ in the amount of shock delivered to their partner. The situational demands may have been powerful enough to override the effects of personality differences. 2 interpretations are offered for the finding that the highly prejudiced Ss perceived the shock delivered to their peer as more painful than the less prejudiced Ss: (a) the possibility that this difference reflected the highly prejudiced Ss' lower guilt level for aggressing; and (b) the possibility that the highly prejudiced Ss used different mechanisms to reduce the discomfort engendered by harming another person than those used by their less prejudiced peers. (French summary) (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of extrinsic incentives on use of test anxiety as an anticipatory attributional defense: Playing it cool when the stakes are high.

Assessed the effect of extrinsic incentives on the use of test anxiety as a self-handicapping strategy. It was hypothesized that although reports of anxiety may be greater when such symptoms can serve a defensive function, this effect occurs only when extrinsic incentives are low and not under conditions of high extrinsic incentive. 84 male undergraduates anticipated taking a test of intellectual abilities and either were led to believe that test anxiety has no effect on test performance or were given no particular information about the relation between test anxiety and performance. Ss were offered either $5 or $25 for obtaining the highest score on the test. Consistent with predictions, no-information Ss reported greater test anxiety before the test than did those who believed that test anxiety was unrelated to performance, but only when the extrinsic incentive for performance was low. However, these Ss did not report greater cognitive interference or exhibit lower test scores than did Ss in other conditions. It is suggested that the defensive strategy used by these Ss consisted of altering perceptions of anxiety, rather than anxiety itself. Implications of the absence of self-handicapping under high incentive conditions are discussed. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping profiles associated with psychiatric, physical health, work, and family problems.

Examined coping profiles of 11 samples (identified in the stress literature) with a total of 1,298 individuals experiencing psychiatric, physical health, work, or family problems. Comparisons were made in Ss with and without anxiety and depression to control for the effects of distress. Coping was similar for Ss in similar problem categories, but different for Ss in different categories. Psychiatric Ss made more use of avoidance and less use of social supports. Ss with physical health problems were among the most frequent users of social supports. Ss with a family problem were among the most frequent users of problem-focused coping and the least frequent users of self-blame. Ss with work stress were the most frequent users of self-blame. Results support the hypothesis that persons with psychopathology cope in maladaptive ways involving dysfunctional strategies that constitute the behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Math anxiety: Relation with situational test anxiety, performance, physiological arousal, and math avoidance behavior.

Investigated the relation of mathematics anxiety to situationally assessed test anxiety, mathematics performance, physiological arousal, and mathematics avoidance behavior in 23 male and 40 female undergraduates. Ss completed the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale, the Mathematics Anxiety Scale, the Anxiety Toward Mathematics Scale, and the Test Anxiety Inventory prior to completing 3 mathematics tasks. During the tasks, heart rate, skin conductance level, skin fluctuations, and avoidance behavior were monitored. Ss also completed the Post-Task Questionnaire, a situational measure of test anxiety, worry, and emotionality. Results indicate that mathematics anxiety measures were more highly rated to each other than to test anxiety. Mathematics anxiety accounted for 14–23% of the variance in 2 tasks, whereas, ability accounted for 30–42%. Rarely, did anxiety add to the variance accounted for by ability. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior of high, moderate, and low test anxious students during an actual test situation.

A 3 by 2 by 3 Test Anxiety Level by Level of Past Academic Performance by Point of Assessment factorial design was employed to examine effects on 8 dependent variables: positive thoughts; negative thoughts; evaluation, potency, and activity semantic differentials; history test grade; bodily sensations; and Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale score. Results with 231 college students indicate that low test anxious Ss differed significantly from high test anxious Ss on all 8 dependent variables. Level of test anxiety had a significant effect on each dependent variable. In addition, Ss with high GPAs received significantly higher test grades and reported more bodily sensations indicative of arousal than Ss with low GPAs. Ss assessed toward the end of the test (last 10 min) reported significantly more negative thoughts and bodily sensations than Ss assessed after reading the history test questions for the first time (beginning) or at the middle of the test. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality, problem solving, and the Einstellung effect.

2 hypotheses were raised in this experiment: (a) Ss who show antiscientific or nondynamic tendencies in their perceptions of behavior are more subject to the Einstellung effect; and (b) when achievement anxiety is aroused this relationship is more pronounced. 2 groups of 31 Ss each were given 2 Einstellung-test problem series. For one group standard testing conditions were employed; for the other, achievement anxiety was aroused. Ss were evaluated for dynamic-nondynamic perceptions of others, a measure derived from a modification of Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test. This measure was not found to be related to Einstellung-test scores, but a significant relationship to achievement anxiety was obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)