Delay of gratification as a function of incentive preference and race of experimenter.

Offered 14 incentive items to 133 black and 85 white 7-12 yr olds. Each S could choose 1 of 4 "inexpensive" items ($.05-.08) to receive at the end of the school day on which the test was given, or 1 of 10 "expensive" items ($.25-.35) to receive 3 wks later. The black and the white Ss differed in their preferences for expensive incentive objects. No statistically reliable differences were found between the black and the white Ss in ability to delay gratification. Results are contrasted with those obtained by B. R. Strickland (see record 1972-24694-001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in goal-object preference as a function of expectancy for social reinforcement.

Ss ranked ten preselected toys and received E's verbal approval as reinforcement. "Following a constant number of experiences with several goal objects, the resulting preference changes measured after one day appeared to be related to either the expectancy for, or the frequency of, social reinforcement… . Changes in preference value after eight days were less specific to reinforcement conditions… ." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Procedural preference as a function of conflict intensity.

Conducted 2 studies with college students to examine procedural preferences in conflict situations that, unlike the conflicts in most procedural justice work, permit concession exchange. In this conflict setting, disputants have been found to prefer procedures that provide them with a share of decision control as well as complete process control. Among competitively motivated disputants, bargaining strength is shown to qualify these preferences, in that weak-case disputants want the least 3rd-party involvement. Exp I, with 126 Ss, demonstrated the robustness of disputants' preferences for process control, because an autocratic procedure receives unfavorable ratings independently of the opportunity for concession exchange. Exp II showed that disputants confronted with integrative settlement options prefer bargaining over mediation and arbitration. It is concluded that findings support the claim that conflict structure must be considered in any attempt to predict disputants' procedural preferences. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Displacement of preference as a function of avoidance-avoidance conflict.

"An earlier study [see 34: 804]… has demonstrated that approach and avoidance gradients of preference could be obtained from children, following positive or negative reinforcement (success or failure) applied to their response to a training task." This experiment is an extension of that study, and attempts to establish a condition under which preference displacement may occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in counselor response as a function of experience.

The responses of 67 counselors to 21 widely varying client statements were rated on eight dimensions (dominance, approach–avoidance, focus on affect, immediacy, breadth vs. specificity, meeting client's demands, verbosity, and confrontation). The counselors were divided into three experience levels (beginning students [n?=?24], advanced students [n?=?23], and doctoral level professionals [n?=?20]), and their responses were compared. We hypothesized that student counselors would evidence different amounts of these variables than would the doctoral counselors. This hypothesis was supported on the dimensions of dominance, immediacy, meeting client's demands, verbosity, and confrontation. It was also hypothesized that response flexibility would differ across the experience levels. On the dimensions of dominance, meeting client demands, and confrontation, doctoral counselors were more flexible than were advanced student counselors. The results indicate that students focus on learning and honing the use of certain counseling skills. In the process of doing this, they tend to apply them in a rigid manner. Doctoral counselors appear more able to apply their skills flexibly depending on the situation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Room preference as a function of architectural features and user activities.

Conducted 3 experiments on preference for model rooms as a function of variations in architectural features (ceiling height, ceiling slope, and wall angle) and variations in presumed user activities (talking, listening, reading, dancing, dining, and no activity specified). 73 undergraduates rated the desirability of simulated rooms on a response scale ranging from –20 to +10. Single-peaked preference functions were obtained for variations in ceiling height and wall angle, whereas a double-peaked function was obtained for ceiling slope. In all instances the data on ceiling height could be modeled by a quadratic equation, in which mean preference was expressed as a function of the logarithm of the ceiling height. In general, Ss preferred ceilings that were higher than those normally encountered in the built environment. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choosing problem-solving rewards and Halloween prizes: Delay of gratification and preference for symbolic reward as a function of development, motivation, and personal investment.

Conducted 3 experiments to generate and cross-validate a developmental account of reward preferences in the lifelike condition in which available rewards differ on both the immediate-delayed and material-symbolic dimensions. 429 children within a broad range of developmental levels (CA 2?–20 yrs) selected from arrays in which immediate-material, immediate-symbolic, delayed-material, and delayed-symbolic items were available. In each experiment more mature Ss delayed gratification to maximize reward magnitude and chose rewards symbolic of success more often than did less mature Ss. Analyses indicated that the 2 reward dimensions were both highly salient in Ss' thinking and that developmental effects on the 2 dimensions could be neatly integrated within a 3-stage developmental scale. Developmental effects on this scale and on the separate dimensions persisted across changes in the particular reward items available and changes in location from school testing room to more naturalistic Halloween settings. Findings indicate that preference for symbolic rewards tends to be more pronounced among the mentally retarded than the nonretarded but cast doubt upon previous interpretations of that group difference. Finally, children's Halloween prize choices suggested that preference for symbolic reward is a function of one's developmental level, the achievement being rewarded, and the extent of one's personal investment in that achievement. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in parent consequences as a function of family intervention.

Systematic observations of parent-child interaction collected in the homes of 25 families who participated in a parent-mediated social reprograming treatment project for aggressive boys (mean age 8.8 yrs) were used to assess changes in parent consequences for child behavior. Analyses comparing baseline and termination consequence ratios revealed significant reductions in maternal aversive consequences that were provided for deviant and prosocial behavior and in paternal positive consequences that were provided for deviant behavior. Additional analyses revealed that reductions in inappropriate parent consequences were not the result of a general overall reduction in parent–child interaction. It is concluded that the treatment program was partially successful in producing changes in the ongoing pattern of consequences provided by the parents. These changes consisted of reductions in inappropriate consequences rather than increases in appropriate consequences. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations for success on effort-determined tasks as a function of incentive and performance feedback.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate an attributional analysis of the consequences of perceiving one's effort as stable, as opposed to unstable, on future performance expectancies. In Exp I, 32 male undergraduates were told that performance on the experimental tasks was purely effort determined; they expected a monetary incentive for good performance on half the tasks and received preprogrammed feedback that their performance was either variable or consistent. In Exp II, both 45 male and 51 female Ss believed the tasks were either effort or ability determined and received variable or consistent feedback; incentive was operationalized as the level of task interestingness. As predicted, Ss who believed performance was effort determined and received variable feedback had higher expectations for performance on a later task when its incentive value was high than when it was low. Ss receiving consistent feedback did not differ in their expectations, regardless of the incentive value of the task. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative steepness of approach and avoidance gradients as a function of magnitude and valence of incentive.

20 undergraduates tapped rapidly to either win (approach) or avoid losing (avoidance) sums of money. The experimental design permitted height and steepness of arousal gradients to be examined as a function (a) of magnitude of incentive, with valence and quality of incentive held constant; and (b) of valence of incentive, with magnitude and quality of incentive held constant. An increase in incentive increased both the slope and height of approach and avoidance arousal gradients. Results support the conceptualization of motive strength as a multiplicative function of drive-related cues and an internal state rather than as an additive function, as proposed by N. E. Miller (1944, 1959). Avoidance gradients were significantly steeper than approach gradients, but the effect was not very robust and was far from uniform across Ss, some of whom produced much steeper approach than avoidance gradients. It is concluded that although there may be an intrinsic tendency for avoidance gradients to be steeper than approach gradients, this tendency is not strong and is easily reversed, giving rise to "avoidance–approach" conflict. Such conflict has interesting theoretical and practical implications that have not been recognized because of uncritical acceptance of the assumption that avoidance gradients are invariably steeper than approach gradients. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in representation of body image as a function of menarcheal status.

Investigated the significance of menarche for girls' body image and sexual identification by assessing human figure drawings produced by 87 adolescent girls on 2 occasions, 6 mo apart. Three groups of Ss were studied: girls who were premenarcheal on both test occasions, girls who were postmenarcheal on both test occasions, and girls who changed menarcheal status between the 2 test administrations. Parallel results were obtained from both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons of pre- vs postmenarcheal girls. Postmenarcheal girls produced more sexually differentiated human figure drawings and more frequently drew their own sex first when asked to draw a person. Postmenarcheal, as compared to premenarcheal, girls indicated greater satisfaction with "female" body parts on a modified body-cathexis scale. These data confirm clinical speculations that menarche is a pivotal event for reorganization of the adolescent girl's body image and sexual identity. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in locus of control as a function of life crisis resolution.

Examined Rotter's Internal-External (I-E) scale in relation to life crisis and crisis resolution. It was hypothesized that crisis patients (N = 30), overwhelmed by external forces in their lives, would initially be more externally oriented on the I-E scale than a similar group of noncrisis outpatients (N = 30), but would show a significant shift toward the internal end of the dimension following a 6-wk crisis resolution period, while the noncrisis patients would show no significant I-E shift. Results are consistent with this hypothesis, but do not support a prediction that magnitude of I-E change would be negatively related to age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in personality as a function of college attendance or work experience.

Administered the 16 PF to 105 females and 113 males who took a job immediately after leaving high school (work group) and 177 females and 178 males who entered college immediately after high school graduation (college group). All Ss were tested twice on the 16 PF both during their senior high school year (1965) and 5 yr. later (1970). Analyses of variance were performed for each of the personality factors treated as dependent variables and with groups and occasions as factors in these analyses. Three kinds of results were observed: (a) a set of selective traits that differentiated the college and work groups initially; (b) changes in certain personality traits that were related to the treatment effects experienced by the 2 groups (i.e., college or job); and (c) age trend effects common to both groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal preference as a variable in involutional psychosis.

On the basis of a theoretical formulation dealing with the interrelations among the self-concept, ideal-self-concept, and perceived responses of others, it was hypothesized that involutional psychosis is an expression of tension, resulting from the discrepancy between a self-concept which is changing with age and an ideal-self-concept which is not. Therefore, the ideal-self-concept of involutionals would contain a larger number of life goals more espoused by younger individuals than would the ideal-self-concept of other psychotics or normals. A measure of the age congruency of life goals was constructed and the results obtained support the major hypothesis to the degree that involutionals differ significantly from normals. The difference between involutionals and other psychotics was in the direction of the major hypothesis (confidence level = .06), but was not significant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preference for alcohol consumption as a function of amount and delay of alternative reward.

Sixty male normal drinkers were placed in a choice situation with two behavioral alternatives; one produced access to alcohol consumption, and one produced access to opportunities to win money on a probabilistic dice throw task. Any alcohol chosen was available during the session, and constraints on access to it were held constant. Two independent variables involving constraints on access to money were manipulated in a 2?×?3 factorial design: (a) amount of money available, which was determined by the probability of a "win" on the dice throw task (either .17 or .83), and (b) delay in receipt of any money won (either no delay, a 2-week delay, or an 8-week delay). The main dependent measures were the proportion of responses allocated to gain access to alcohol, response-outcome expectancies, and mood state. Subjects' preferences for alcohol varied positively with delay but were not significantly influenced by the money-amount manipulation. Subjects' choice behavior was not related to mood states or expectations. The results partially replicate those of an earlier experiment and lend credence to a formulation of the determinants of drinking behavior based on behavioral theories of choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in posterior hypothalamic self-stimulation following experimental cerebral infarction in the rat.

Bipolar stimulating electrodes were placed bilaterally in the posterior hypothalamus of male Sprague-Dawley rats following which the Ss were shaped for intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS). When ICSS rates were stable for 1 wk, the right middle cerebral artery was ligated. During the 25-day postinfarction period, the rate of ICSS at specified current values was compared with preoperative rates. At 2 days after operation, there was a 33% decrease in the maximum frequency of ipsilateral ICSS. By 8 days after experimental stroke, there was a 16% increase in the maximal rate of ICSS above the preoperative values, and the rate returned to control levels by 20 days after surgery. The minimum current necessary to elicit the maximal rate of response also changed in a biphasic manner (i.e., minimum required current was greater than preoperative control levels until 8 days after operation but then dropped below control level until 20 days postoperative). There were no changes in the current or rate of response in the contralateral electrode. Results are discussed in relation to what may be the underlying neurophysiological changes causing these biphasic alterations in ICSS. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in stuttering frequency as a function of various intervals of delayed auditory feedback.

5 different intervals of delayed auditory feedback (DAF) were presented to 6 severe stutterers while they read aloud. Results indicate that the continuous presentation of DAF significantly reduced stuttering frequency. Fluency enhancement was generally greatest during the shortest DAF intervals tested. No evidence was found for the carryover of fluency generated by DAF into the period immediately following Ss' experience on DAF. Results are consistent with a view that stuttering is based on a defect in the processing of auditory feedback. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in children's verbal behavior as a function of social approval and manifest anxiety.

"This study investigated the operant conditioning of a class of verbal behavior as a function of manifest anxiety and of two types of social approval in grade school children. Anxiety levels were inferred from the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Social reinforcers consisted of a 'head nod' and the verbalization 'good.' Acquisition of a verbal conditioned response was obtained in both reinforcement groups with the verbal reinforcer being significantly better than physical movement. Anxiety effects were not demonstrable." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in infants'' cries as a function of time in a cry bout

Endoluminal ultrasound of the obstructed ureteropelvic junction (UPJ) provides accurate anatomic information not available through other studies. Endoluminal ultrasonography in the evaluation of the obstructed UPJ can be extremely valuable and its use can be expected to expand with increasing experience with the techniques. The anatomy demonstrated through the fine resolution of this technique may ultimately provide the key to the selection of optimal therapy for the obstructed UPJ.     

Shuttling behavior and intracranial self-stimulation reward: Behavioral changes as a function of intensity and independence of on/off times.

The correlation between "on" and "off" time in intracranial self-stimulation shuttling behavior under continuous reinforcement was examined. The results showed that if a tendency for positive trend in the data was accounted for, no consistent correlation could be found between within-trial on time and the succeeding or preceding off time either as a function of intensity or number of trials. However, mean on and off times showed a significant positive correlation at low to moderate intensities. Total charge, total time, and proportion of time on remain relatively constant over a series of trials despite significant changes in on time, off time, and crossing rate. The results indicate the importance of selecting suitable measures in the study of shuttling behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)