Interactive effects of age and familiarization in paired-associate learning.

Prior to learning a list of paired associates consisting of pictures of common objects, 40 preschool and 40 2nd graders were given 1 of 4 familiarization conditions: stimulus pretraining, response pretraining, irrelevant pretraining, and no pretraining. Results show that the 2nd graders exhibited positive transfer from familiarization to paired-associate learning due to nonspecific factors such as "warm-up." The preschoolers, however, displayed positive transfer due to more specific factors inherent in response and stimulus pretraining. These results suggest that the pretraining experience facilitated rehearsal by making available verbal labels. Results are consistent with (a) developmental hypotheses that emphasize growth in discriminative capacity and/or verbal mediation and (b) phase theories of paired-associate learning that emphasize stimulus and response learning stages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distinctiveness effects in children's long-term retention.

In 3 experiments, kindergarten and second-grade children's retention was examined in the context of 2 distinctiveness manipulations, namely, the von Restorff and bizarre imagery paradigms. Specifically, children learned lists of pictures (Experiments la and lb) or interactive images (Experiment 2) and were asked to recall them 3 weeks later. In Experiments la and lb, distinctiveness was manipulated perceptually (changing colors) and conceptually (changing categories or switching to a numeral), whereas in Experiment 2, distinctiveness concerned the interaction (common or bizarre) between the referents. The results showed that (a) older children retained more information than younger children, (b) younger but not older children failed to benefit from numerically distinct information, and (c) distinctiveness in other domains facilitated children's retention. These results highlight the importance of distinctive information in children's retention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interference effects in young children's long-term retention.

Classical interference effects were examined in preschool and kindergarten children's paired-associate recall (Experiment 1) and free recall (Experiment 2). Children in the control conditions learned a single picture list, whereas children in the experimental conditions learned 2 picture lists in succession. After 24 hr, children recalled items from the one list they had learned (control conditions), items from only List 1 (retroactive interference conditions), or items from both lists (modified free-recall conditions). Analyses based on the trace-integrity framework indicated that (a) children were susceptible to interference, (b) the locus of interference effects was at storage, (c) both younger (preschool) and older (kindergarten) children experienced similar amounts of interference, and (d) variations in trace strength generally did not modulate the magnitude of interference effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Context effects on examinations: The effects of time, item order and item difficulty.

Tested the effects of contextual factors, i.e., time, item, chapter, and difficulty arrangement, on test performance. In Exp 1, an advantage for students writing a quiz in the early and middle testing periods was found for an afternoon group; however, early testing, compared to middle and late testing, was a disadvantage for an evening group writing the same quiz. Exp 2 found that neither chapter retrieval cues nor sequenced chapter content order affected exam performance; exam items forward-sequenced with text coverage yielded no advantage over those items that were reverse- or random-sequenced. Exp 3 manipulated both chapter order and within-chapter item order so that exam items in any chapter were not sequenced in the same order as text coverage. There was no advantage to receiving exam questions in one sequence over another. In Exp 4, item arrangement was manipulated according to difficulty level (easy-to-hard, hard-to-easy, and random order). No effect on performance for order of item difficulty was found. Results indicate that contextual factors like time have an effect on overall performance; however, other factors, such as item, chapter and difficulty arrangements, have little or no effect on overall performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some suffix effects on lipread lists.

Investigated the effects of a lip-read (silent) and a protruding tongue suffix, as well as a heard suffix, on lip-read number recall; Ss were 15 undergraduates. Only a heard suffix specifically disturbed lip-read recency; the lip-read suffix exerted an effect through the list with no recency specific detriment, and the tongue suffix reduced primacy. (French abstract) (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of retention interval on serial position curves for item recognition of visual patterns and faces.

In 9 experiments, college students were presented with a series of 4 novel items, followed by an immediate or delayed probe recognition test. Delaying the recognition test reduced performance on the final item, when the interpresentation intervals (IPIs) were kept constant (Experiments 1A–1G), and also when the IPIs were varied (Experiments 2A–2B). Only 1 experiment reported any evidence of increased primacy with delay when the EPIs were kept constant, but this result failed to replicate. Neither Experiment 2A nor 2B provided evidence of increased primacy with test delay or any effect of IN on recency. However, Experiment 2A showed a deficit at the first serial position when followed by a short IPI. These results do not support the predictions of the dimensional distinctiveness model but are broadly compatible with established information-processing models of visual memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of the temporal structure of spoken words on paired-associate learning.

In a series of experiments, participants learned to associate black-and-white shapes with nonsense spoken labels (e.g., “joop”). When tested on their recognition memory, participants falsely recognized as correct a shape paired with a label that began with the same sounds as the shape’s original label (onset-overlapping lure; e.g., joob) more often than a shape paired with a label that overlapped with the original label at offset (offset-overlapping lure; e.g., choop). Furthermore, the false-alarm rate was modulated by the phonetic distance between the sounds that distinguished the original label and the lures. Greater false-alarm rates to onset-overlapping labels were not predicted by explicit similarity ratings or by consonant identification and were not dependent upon label familiarity. The asymmetry at erroneously recognizing onset- versus offset-overlapping lures remained unchanged as the presentation of the shape at test was delayed in time, suggesting that response anticipation based on the first sounds of the spoken label did not contribute much to the false recognition of onset-overlapping lures. Thus, learning 2 words whose names differ in their last sounds appears to pose greater difficulty than learning 2 words whose names differ in their first sounds because, we argue, people are biased to give more importance to the early sounds of a name than to its last sounds when learning a novel label–referent association. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of thorazine on learning and retention in schizophrenic patients.

The effect of thorazine upon learning in schizophrenics was studied by the use of a word association task. The performance of patients receiving varying dosages of thorazine (from 100 to 800 mg/day) were compared with patients who were on placebo. Thorazine was seen to affect learning and retention negatively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of cue dependency on item and source memory.

The authors investigated the cue dependency of source and item memory. Individuals listened to words spoken by a man or a woman and later determined whether a test word was previously presented by a man or by a woman, or whether it was a new word. Cue dependent effects were assessed by presenting test words with (a) the same voice (match condition) that originally presented the word, (b) a different but familiar voice (mismatch condition), (c) a novel test voice (novel condition), and (d) no test voice (control condition). Compared with the control condition, source recollection was facilitated in matching-context conditions, disrupted in mismatching-context conditions, and not affected in novel test conditions. By contrast, item recognition was not affected by the match–mismatch manipulation but was significantly worse in novel test voice conditions. The authors propose an associative source interference view to account for the voice match–mismatch effects observed in source recollection. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of ignoring item interactions on the estimated discrimination parameters in item response theory.

Most item response theory models assume conditional independence, and it is known that interactions between items affect the estimated item discrimination. In this article, this effect is further investigated from a theoretical perspective and by means of simulation studies. To this end, a parametric model for item interactions is introduced. Next, it is shown that ignoring a positive interaction results in an overestimation of the discrimination parameter in the two-parameter logistic model (2PLM), whereas ignoring a negative interaction leads to an underestimation of the parameter. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that in some cases the item characteristic curves of the 2PLM and of an item involved in an interaction are quite similar, indicating that the 2PLM can provide a good fit to data with interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of familiarization on alertness and encoding in children.

Three experiments with a total of 56 1st graders explored a theoretical interpretation of stimulus familiarization, the finding that after repeated exposure to a stimulus, reaction time is slower to that stimulus than to a novel one. In Exp I, this phenomenon was replicated. Exp II and Exp III, using a reaction time paradigm analogous to one that separates attention into alertness and encoding components, demonstrated that (a) the familiarization effect results primarily from a decrease in alertness associated with a familiar stimulus and (b) when alertness is held constant, reaction time to the familiar stimulus is faster than reaction time to the novel stimulus due to an encoding advantage enjoyed by the familiar stimulus. Developmental implications of an overall processing system are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of item format on item discrimination and difficulty.

Studied the effects of item stem orientation (positive-negative), structure (open-closed), and inclusive alternatives on item difficulty and discrimination. Data were obtained from 1,124 undergraduates taking a regularly scheduled test. Results indicate that item difficulty was critically affected by all 3 independent variables with no interactions and that item discrimination was affected by the use of an inclusive alternative with a significant interaction between orientation and stem structure. Suggestions are made with respect to effective item-writing strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

State-dependent and main effects of methylphenidate and pemoline on paired-associate learning and spelling in hyperactive children.

In a repeated-measure design, 36 children (aged 5.8–11.6 yrs) diagnosed as having attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity participated in 3 learning (placebo, methylphenidate hydrochloride [0.3 mg/kg] and pemoline [1.9 mg/kg]) and 3 retention (placebo, methylphenidate, and pemoline) conditions. Ss learned (Week 1) and were tested for retention (Week 2) on paired-associate learning (PAL) and nonsense-word spelling lists in each condition. Results show that methylphenidate and pemoline affected clinically significant facilitation of learning and relearning performance on the spelling task. Both medications appeared to produce a similar, but less clear, enhancement of PAL. State-dependent learning (SDL) was not found on either task between stimulant and placebo states. A significant SDL interaction was found between methylphenidate and pemoline on spelling word retention. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incongruous item generation effects: A multiple-cue perspective.

In a series of studies, generation effects were obtained under encoding conditions designed to induce incongruous, unrelated item generation. Exps 1 and 2, using free- and cued-recall measures, respectively, provided evidence that this unrelated generation effect was due to response-specific processing. Exp 3 demonstrated a lack of relation between free recall and indices of clustering. A preliminary protocol study suggested that Ss generate multiple items in their search for appropriate unrelated responses. In Exps 4 and 5, conditions designed to produce more extensive multiple generations demonstrated enhanced free recall. These results supported a multiple-cue account of facilitated recall for incongruous item generation. The multiple-cue perspective is consistent with traditional conceptualizations of memory, such as the principle of congruity, and contemporary distinctions between cue–target relational and item specific processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The use of an operational game as a method of task familiarization.

A method of pretraining which consisted of practice on a highly abstract version of the test task was evaluated by experimental (E) vs. control (C) procedures. 10 Ss were used in each group. The E group received 5 hours practice on the abstract "game," and subsequently both groups received 6 hours training on the test task. The E group's performance was reliably superior to the C group throughout the 6-hour test task period although the difference gradually diminished. It was concluded that positive transfer in complex tasks is based on the practice of verbally mediated, central responses common to both pretraining and test tasks. From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5CL01K. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of age in four alternative forced-choice item and associative recognition tasks.

Seventy-three young and 84 older adults were taught interactive imagery as a strategy for learning word pairs. In the control condition, participants viewed word pairs 1 at a time and formed an interactive image for each. In the experimental condition, participants first formed individual mental images for both the cue and the target and then formed an interactive image for the pair. Participants in both conditions then completed 4 alternative forced-choice item and associative recognition tasks that avoid influences of age differences in retrieval strategies such as recall-to-reject. Unlike findings with typical yes–no recognition tests, associative recognition was superior to item recognition in the control condition. This effect was attenuated in the experimental condition. Older adults had poorer recognition memory for both associative and item tests, with a larger age difference for recognizing new associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expanding retrieval practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced retrieval enhances long-term retention.

Expanding retrieval practice (T. K. Landauer & R. A. Bjork, 1978) is regarded as a superior technique for promoting long-term retention relative to equally spaced retrieval practice. In Experiments 1 and 2, the authors found that expanding retrieval practice of vocabulary word pairs produced short-term benefits 10 min after learning, conceptually replicating Landauer and Bjork's results. However, equally spaced retrieval produced superior retention 2 days later. This pattern occurred both with and without feedback after test trials. In Experiment 3, the 1st test occurred immediately or after a brief delay, and repeated tests were expanding or equally spaced. Delaying the first test improved long-term retention, regardless of how the repeated tests were spaced. The important factor for promoting long-term retention is delaying initial retrieval to make it more difficult, as is done in equally spaced retrieval but not in expanding retrieval. Expanding the interval between repeated tests had little effect on long-term retention in 3 experiments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of prior knowledge and repeated questioning on children's long-term retention of the details of a pediatric examination.

Children's recall of the details of pediatric examinations was examined over the course of a 6-month interval. Although the 83 4- to 7-year-old participants reported a substantial amount of information at each assessment, performance declined over time, dropping sharply over the course of 3 months but then remaining constant out to the final interview at 6 months. As expected, older children provided more total information than younger children did and reported a greater proportion of the event components in response to general rather than specific questions. However, comparable patterns of remembering and forgetting over time were observed at each age level. In addition, no effects of repeated questioning--in the form of an interview at 3 months for half of the children--were observed on performance at the 6-month assessment. Moreover, children's prior knowledge about routine doctor visits was assessed before the checkup for half of the participants at each age and was associated with initial but not delayed recall. Although knowledge increased with age as expected, it nonetheless affected recall over and above the influence of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organization versus item effects of an elaborated knowledge base on children's memory.

Investigated the extent to which the high levels of recall and organization observed when children are asked to recall their classmates' names (class recall) can be attributed to organizational vs item-specific effects. Ss were 109 1st, 3rd, and 5th graders. Levels of clustering in class recall were elevated when Ss were constrained to recall their classmates' names according to specific organizational schemes (either sex or seating arrangement). However, there was no evidence that changes in levels or styles of organization influenced levels of memory performance or which names were recalled. Results indicate that some of the benefits on memory of an elaborated knowledge base cannot be attributed to differences in organization (either strategic or automatic) but rather are due to differences in the ease with which individual items can be retrieved. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of mnemonic instructions on paired-associate recognition memory for faces or names.

96 undergraduates (4 experimental and 2 control groups) learned 2 lists of 10 pairs of number-faces or number-names. Experimental Ss learned the 2nd list under a mnemonic rhyme condition. 1/2 of the experimental Ss used imagery as a mediator while the remainder were given verbal mediation sets. Ss took longer to learn faces than names and longer to learn under mnemonic than control conditions. On recognition tests, faces evoked slower latency responses than names, whereas mnemonic sets, in particular imagery as opposed to verbal, reduced response time. Names were recognized better than faces, mnemonics improved recognition scores, and recognition of faces but not of names was facilitated by the mnemonics. Control-group data show that results are not attributable to practice effects. Questionnaire reports of learning strategies are also examined. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)