Social psychology and plea bargaining: Applications, methodology, and theory.

Conducted 2 experiments with male undergraduates to investigate the plea bargaining process. Exp I (143 Ss) used a role-playing procedure to identify variables that affect the acceptance of a plea bargain. 18% of the Ss playing the role of innocent defendants accepted the plea bargain, whereas 83% of the guilty defendants accepted. Two other main effects revealed that defendants were more likely to accept a plea bargain when relatively many charges had been filed against them and/or when the severity of punishment upon conviction was great, although internal analyses revealed that these effects were present in guilty defendants only. Exp II (18 Ss) was conducted using involved participants to provide validation for the major result of Exp I. Ss were made to be innocent or guilty of having prior information about an exam. All were accused of having used prior information and were given an opportuinity to plea bargain rather than face an ethics committee. In accord with Exp I, guilty Ss accepted the plea bargain significantly more often than innocent students. Results are discussed in terms of information differences between innocent and guilty defendants and the availability heuristic. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Residual effects of food deprivation on food consumption and runway performance in the satiated rat.

2 experiments studied the residual effects of prior food deprivation in 35 female and 28 male Holtzman rats as measured by probability to eat and acquisition of a running response under satiated conditions. Although the effects were positively related to the severity of prior deprivation (Exp II), a drive-conditioning interpretation was questioned because of 3 findings: (a) effects were not dependent on exposure to the test situation when Ss were deprived (Exp I and II); (b) prolonged testing during satiation increased rather than decreased the effects (Exp I and II); and (c) the instrumental response decreased only when reward was withheld (Exp I). (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of repeated testing on sexual behavior of the female rat.

Investigated effects of stimulation during repeated testing, using 24 female Sprague-Dawley rats in which intromission was prevented by a vaginal mask. Ss were ovariectomized and administered 1 mg of estradiol benzoate (EB) daily for 10 days (Exp I) or 5 mg of EB for 2 days (Exp II). Behavioral indices included lordosis quotient (a measure of sexual receptivity) and rejection quotient (a measure of social rejection of the male). Intensity and duration of lordosis gave additional measures. In Exp I hourly testing increased lordosis quotient and duration, especially in Ss receiving EB for 5 days; no effects of daily testing were shown. Exp II compared the behavior of Ss that were either handled hourly and tested hourly with the male rat or only handled hourly to the behavior of Ss that were tested and handled only once. Repeated testing and/or handling facilitated sexual responsiveness, while Ss that received neither treatment were sluggish in their social response to the male rat when they were tested, and were not sexually receptive. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of UCS preexposure on excitatory and inhibitory rabbit eyelid conditioning: An associative effect of conditioned contextual stimuli.

Preconditioning experience with the UCS retards subsequent excitatory conditioning. Three experiments demonstrated that the UCS retardation effect is attenuated by associative manipulations of contextual stimuli of the UCS preexposure environment. The UCS retardation effect was reduced by (a) altering contextual stimuli between preexposure and conditioning (Exp I, 49 New Zealand male rabbits; Exp II, 28 Ss); and (b) latently inhibiting contextual stimuli subsequent to UCS (Exp III, 36 Ss). Although UCS preexposure retarded excitatory conditioning, results of Exp IV (48 Ss) demonstrated that UCS preexposure facilitated inhibitory conditioning. Overall findings indicate that an association between contextual stimuli and preexposed UCS contributes to the effects of preconditioning UCS experience on subsequent learning. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingency judgments by depressed college students: Sadder but not always wiser.

Three experiments with 296 undergraduates examined depressed and nondepressed (Beck Depression Inventory) Ss' perceptions of control over outcomes in a task similar to the one introduced by L. B. Alloy and L. Y. Abramson (see record 1981-02686-001). In Exp I, when Ss completed a contingency learning task with no one else present, nondepressed Ss perceived themselves to have more control over frequently occurring response-independent outcomes than did depressed Ss, which replicated Alloy and Abramson's finding. When Ss completed the task in the presence of an observer, depressed students perceived themselves to have more control than did nondepressed Ss. In Exp II, the observer effects found in Exp I were replicated; the present authors also showed that, when response-independent outcomes occurred relatively infrequently, depressed and nondepressed Ss who completed the task in the presence of an observer did not reliably differ in their estimates of personal control. In Exp III, the pattern of results found in Exps I and II was replicated under conditions in which observers were present while Ss received frequently occurring outcomes. Overall findings demonstrate that the consistently accurate personal control estimates of depressed Ss that have been found across a variety of situations break down when Ss complete a contingency learning task in the presence of an observer, and outcomes occur independently of response at a high frequency. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of purpose in the organization of information about behavior: Trait-based versus goal-based categories in person cognition.

Three experiments with 120 college students investigated (a) the role of observational purpose in the tendency to employ trait or goal categories in the organization of behavioral information and (b) the effects of goal-based vs trait-based organization of the information on Ss' ability to recall it. Exp I showed that Ss reading and categorizing a series of episodes for the purpose of recalling either the material or empathizing with the main character organized the episodes primarily in terms of the character's goals. In contrast, Ss whose purpose was either to form a personality impression of the character or to predict her future behavior organized the episodes primarily in terms of her traits. Exp II demonstrated that the categorizations produced by recall-oriented Ss in Exp I facilitated the ability of a new sample of Ss to remember the episodes, relative to the categorizations produced by impression-oriented or control Ss. Exp II provided evidence that the relatively goal-based structure of the recall-oriented categories probably mediated the effects observed in Exp II. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social position and competition in laboratory rats.

Conducted 2 experiments with male albino rats which controlled for social position (i.e., relative dominance-submission) in an appetitive social learning-performance setting. The 10 most dominant and 10 most submissive of 30 Ss were used in Exp I, and the 20 most dominant of 30 Ss were paired in Exp II. Results indicate that Ss which performed effectively when alone exhibited significantly reduced levels of responding when placed into a social environment. The severity of the response decrement was partly a function of the relative social position of the Ss involved. A dominant male made few responses when paired with another dominant male. Yet, a dominant S made even fewer responses when paired with a submissive S, which barpressed at approximately half the individual level. Findings suggest that social position, with its accompanying characteristic form of aggression, is an important determinant of performance in a social learning environment. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paired-associate learning and priming effects in amnesia: A neuropsychological study.

Conducted 4 experiments investigating the role of priming effects in paired-associate learning. Ss for all 4 experiments were 5 male and 3 female alcoholics (mean age 53.8 yrs; WAIS—R IQs 85–203) with Korsakoff syndrome. Control Ss were 26 male alcoholics (mean age 47.6 yrs). Exp I illustrated the distinction between the memory impairment of amnesic (Korsakoff) Ss and their intact priming ability. In Exp II, amnesic Ss showed good paired-associate learning for related word pairs but controls performed significantly better. Exp II also showed that the forgetting of related word pairs by amnesic Ss followed the same time course as the decay of word priming. Exp III showed that amnesic Ss were as good as controls at learning related word pairs when word-association tests were used. Exp IV showed that amnesic Ss exhibited normal priming when they were asked to free associate to words that were semantically related to previously presented words. Results indicate that both priming effects and paired-associate learning of related words depended on activation, a process that is preserved in amnesia. Activation is a transient phenomenon presumed to operate on and facilitate access to preexisting representations. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group identity on resource use in a simulated commons dilemma.

Used 172 undergraduates in 3 experiments to assess the effects of making salient either a superordinate (collective) or subordinate (differentiating) group identity in heterogeneous groups. In Exp I, 22 male and 36 female Ss were assigned to either a superordinate-group identity (small community resident behavior vs other areas) or a subordinate-group identity (behavior of young people vs elderly people) condition and were asked to perform a computer task individually; Ss were led to believe they were interacting with 5 other persons (2 real and 3 bogus Ss) in their group in accumulating as many points as possible while making the resource last as long as possible. Bogus feedback about group behavior was given. In Exp II, 29 male and 19 female Ss were told that the bogus Ss were economics majors and were asked to perform as in Exp I. In Exp III, the level of social-group identity for 40 male and 26 female Ss was manipulated by varying the common fate of the group members. Results of all 3 experiments show support for the hypothesis that individual restraint would be most likely when a superordinate group identity was made salient and under conditions in which feedback indicated that the common resource was being depleted. A sex-response difference found in Exp I was not sustained in subsequent experiments. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Within-compound learning with US presentation in taste aversion.

Determined whether the presentation of a LiCl unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS) disrupts within-compound learning in a taste aversion preparation, using 30 male and 32 female rats in 3 experiments. In Exp I, Ss showed stronger associations between 2 solutions presented in a compound when the compound was followed by LiCl. Exp II showed that an immediate LiCl injection produced stronger flavor–flavor association than a delayed injection. Exp III provided a comparison with Ss that did not receive the treatment to enhance consumption of salty solutions. Results indicate that the effects of Exp II depended on the treatment that altered consumption of 1 component. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predation: Separation of aggressive and hunger motivation by conditioned aversion.

Reports results of 2 experiments with a total of 50 male Long-Evans rats. In Exp I, Ss were given LiCl 15 min after ingesting mice or saccharin for either 1 day or 4 days. Intake of both substances dropped in the 1-trial groups but not in the 4-trial groups. In Exp II, Ss that received LiCl after killing mice they were not permitted to eat showed no changes in mouse killing. Ss permitted to feed on mice they had killed continued to kill but ate less after a single LiCl trial. Feeding and killing appear to be separable by this technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of performance attributions on others' perceptions of the attributor.

Two studies investigated the effects that performers' attributions actually have on others' impressions. 441 undergraduates served as Ss. "Self-serving" internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure produced slightly higher ability evaluations than did the opposite pattern in 1 of the 2 experiments. However, in both experiments, these self-serving attributions produced lower ratings on a modesty dimension. External attributions were also perceived as relatively dishonest for all Ss in Exp I and for unsuccessful Ss in Exp II. Publicity (Exp I) and task variables (Exp II) did not affect ability, modesty, or honesty judgments made from performance attributions but did strongly affect the influence these dimensions had on overall likability evaluations. In general, Ss who made internal attributions tended to be better liked than those who made external attributions. The implications and limitations of these results are discussed relative to self-presentational considerations. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative aversiveness of signaled vs. unsignaled avoidable and escapable shock situations in humans.

Conducted 2 experiments dealing with signaled and unsignaled shock, using a total of 18 male college students. In Exp I 6 Ss avoided shock, and in Exp II 12 Ss escaped shock by pressing one button under an unsignaled shock condition. By pressing on a separate button, Ss could change to signaled avoidance (Exp I) or signaled escape (Exp II). All Ss changed from the unsignaled to signaled condition whether shock was avoidable or escapable. 6 Ss were also given a chance to change from signaled to unsignaled escapable shock. Changeover responding remained at or near operant levels for these Ss. Comparing results of this study with studies using the rat revealed much similarity but some differences. Differences depended upon whether an escapable or avoidable procedure was used. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ideal traits and terms of address for male and female college professors.

Examined students' perceptions of college professors' ideal traits to ascertain possible influences of sex-role stereotyping (Exp I) and the terms of address students use with their professors in public and private contexts (Exp II). In Exp I, 20 undergraduates compiled a list of 34 ideal traits of professors divided among 5 categories: intellect, professionalism, communication ability, openness, and nurturing. Another 127 Ss were divided into 3 groups, each of which assigned the ideal traits to a male, female, or unspecified-sex professor. Only slight differences in the assignment of openness and nurturing traits to male and female professors were found, and there was no significant difference between male and female Ss who assigned the traits. In Exp II, 72 Ss were asked how they would address each of their professors in private and in public. Few contextual differences were found; however, female professors, especially those in the 26–33 age group, were addressed by first names more often than their male colleagues. Also, female Ss used the familiar terms more often than male Ss. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of response restriction during exposure to inescapable shock upon subsequent one-way and shuttle-avoidance performance in rats.

Investigated the effects of signaled inescapable shock on subsequent avoidance performance in 3 experiments with male Holtzman rats (N = 188). Exp I indicated that prior shock exposure (PSE) facilitated 1-way and shuttle avoidance. When Ss were preshocked in a harness so that free mobility was not possible, the facilitative effects of PSE on shuttle, but not 1-way avoidance performance, were largely reduced. Exp II indicated that activity during CS periods following PSE was greater among unrestrained than restrained Ss. Exp III showed that immobilization via injection of succinylcholine chloride did not affect the facilitative effects of PSE relative to that of Ss preshocked in a harness. Results are interpreted in terms of response repertoire changes produced by PSE in conjunction with the response requirement of the avoidance task. (French summary) (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of naltrexone and signaling inescapable electric shock on nociception and gastric lesions in rats.

Two experiments, with 144 male Long-Evans hooded rats, examined the antinociceptive effects of signaled shock and its physiological underpinnings. In Exp I, Ss were exposed to 1 of 3 shock conditions: no shock, unsignaled shock, and signaled (by a 10-sec, 1,000-Hz tone) shock. In each condition, Ss were tested hourly in the absence of tones for nociception, with vocalization to shock used as the behavioral measure. Ss receiving signaled shocks had stomach ulcer scores intermediate between those of no-shock and unsignaled shock Ss. Signaled-shock Ss also displayed a pronounced vocalization antinociception effect. This suggested that signaled shock may be less aversive. Exp II investigated a possible role of endogenous opiate peptides in these effects. Ss received hourly injections of either the opiate antagonist naltrexone (7 mg/kg, ip) or saline. There were no significant effects of naltrexone on either stomach pathology or nociception scores. The same effects of signaled shock were obtained as in Exp I. It is concluded that the role of endogenous opiates in the effects of signaled shock seen here is minimal. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of group consensus and social support on stimulus meaning: Mediation of conformity by cognitive restructuring.

Three experiments with a total of 163 undergraduates tested the hypothesis that a person reinterprets the meaning of the stimulus object when facing unpopular responses from a unanimous group and that this change in meaning leads to a shift in response toward the group's position. In Exp I, several opinion items were presented, and either Ss observed unpopular responses, supposedly made earlier by a unanimous group (UG) or by a group having 1 dissenter (social support), or they observed no response at all (control). Ss merely gave their interpretation of the meaning of a key word or phrase in each opinion statement—they did not give their own opinions. Results show that UG Ss gave more uncommon meanings to the stimuli than did Ss in the other 2 conditions. Exp II ruled out the possibility that the shift in meaning was due to Ss' adhering to the interpretation they assumed to be held by the majority. In Exp III, Ss were exposed to scores representing the meanings that were produced by the unanimous group and control conditions in Exp I. Results show that after observing the consensually produced meanings for these items, the Ss shifted their own opinions toward the position held by the UG in Exp I. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suppression of licking behavior in rats as a function of predictability of shock and probability of conditioned-stimulus-shock pairings.

In Exp I, the effects of various degrees of predictability of electric shock upon rats' licking behavior were studied using 45 male albino rats. The basal rate of licking became progressively lower as unpredictability of shock increased. It was also found that Ss could utilize "time" as a predictor of safety and danger. In Exp II, using 48 Ss, the relationship between conditioned emotional response (CER) and the probability of conditional stimulus (CS) being paired with shock was studied under the matched basal rate of licking by making all shocks predictable. The CER was an increasing function of the probability of CS-shock pairings. Results are discussed with reference to M. Seligman's (1969) safety-signal hypothesis and R. Rescorla's (1968) probabilistic theory. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Probability of acceptance in dating choice.

Examined the influence of probability of acceptance and physical attractiveness on dating choice in 3 experiments. In Exp I, 15 female undergraduates made preferential choices between 2 male dates, each described by a photograph and a statement of the probability of acceptance. Both probability and attractiveness of the date were found to be important in Ss' judgments. Further, a multiplying rule for the combination of probability of acceptance and attractiveness was supported, in agreement with the subjective expected utility theory of risky decision making. In Exp II, the same Ss made preferential choices between pairs of dates described by photographs alone. The preferences for 11 of the 15 Ss could be accounted for only by using both probability and attractiveness. A multiplicative combination of probability and attractiveness was also found to be predictive of dating choices made by these Ss. Exp III replicated the results of Exp II with a new group of 14 Ss. Results suggest that (a) females are influenced by both probability of acceptance and physical attractiveness in dating choice, and (b) they tend to combine probability with attractiveness in a multiplicative fashion. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extinction and retention of a classically conditioned flexor nerve response in acute spinal cat.

Conditioned adult male and female cats by pairing a mild electrical stimulus to the superficial peroneal sensory nerve (CS) with a stronger electrical stimulus to the ankle skin (UCS) of the same leg. Subsequent extinction was produced by presenting CS-alone trials. In Exp I (42 Ss), Ss given massed extinction trials showed response decrements to base levels, but Ss that received distributed extinction trials showed no decrements. In Exp II, .5-, 1-, 2-, 3-, or 4-hr intervals between acquisition and extinction produced no significant differences in the extinction data. In Exp III (20 Ss), Ss received extinction trials immediately or 30 min after acquisition trials, followed by 20 additional extinction trials 30 min later. Data indicated significant acquisition and extinction in the 10- and 20-acquisition trial groups. As in Exp II (35 Ss), varying the interval between acquisition and extinction did not produce any group differences in the extinction data. These results demonstrate that response increases produced by paired trials in the spinal preparation do not decay spontaneously over time and are not caused by sensitization effects. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)