Biotechnology and its public

The author provides a perspective on three key areas of biotechnology: the public debate over hazards, the commercialization of the technology, and ethical issues that are arising in terms of application of genetic therapy to humans. He reviews the history of the recombinant DNA research debate beginning at Asilomar in 1975, when the molecular biologists called for a temporary moratorium on certain experiments, so the NIH might develop guidelines to govern this research. The author then characterizes the lobbying activities of the biologists against proposed regulation at the federal, state and local level. Despite the lobbying, he concludes that Congress did not enact legislation because of the exemplary behavior of the biologists, beginning with their meeting at Asilomar. The author next describes the impact commercialization of this technology will have on academic biologists who traditionally have not been involved in that process (as have chemists and physicists). He also comments on the ethics of biotechnology, concluding that the more powerful biology becomes, the more its uses and some control of those uses will be debated.     

Genetic engineering and related biotechnologies: scientific progress and public policy

The author reviews the six-year process during which the National Institutes of Health mobilized its resources to develop the NIH Recombinant DNA Research Guidelines and aid in the development of related Federal policies. He also outlines recombinant DNA research activities and current federal policies and programs that might spur the goals of the biotechnology industry. The author then discusses how collaboration among government, university, and industry might work in the light of recombinant DNA research initiatives in federal, state and local governments—as well as some international ones. He concludes with a model for enhancement of cooperative biotechnology programs among government, universities, particularly for university-industry relationships in the biotechnology area.     

Protecting intellectual property rights in SELEX and aptamers

In an earlier article, the author explained the technology of a particular field of combinatorial chemistry––using artificial DNA/RNA sequences––aptamers––as the screening ligand, and the SELEX protocol for exposing an aptamer library to the desired target. In the present article the author explores the types of claims currently being sought and granted for this technology. He considers the relevant legislation, and sets out his views on the validity of various approaches to seeking effective patent protection in this emerging technology, and the ways that protection may develop. He also investigates the potential value of seeking registered design rights in this area.     

Governing technology: values, choices, and scientific progress

The author offers his comments on judicial review of governmental regulation of public health and safety and discusses the role of the common law in providing remedies in the absence of government regulation. Given the nature of biotechnology, the author outlines the underlying issues of competing values that must be addressed (as with any sophisticated technology), and the nature of judicial oversight on government regulations that affect biotechnology. The author, using as a basis the extensive cases before his court from the areas of behavioral science and health regulation, offers a role for biotechnology's scientists based on the roles of experts from these other areas. The author concludes with comments on the public policy process, since the appropriate actions of each of the components — government agencies, the courts and the public — will affect biotechnology.     

The way ahead [EM launchers]

The author discusses the history and future of electromagnetic launchers, focusing on linear induction machines for producing standstill forces, for propelling high-speed vehicles, and as accelerators for producing kinetic energy. He refers to his own experience to illustrate the points made. Conclusions concerning fruitful directions for future research are drawn     

The social sponsorship of innovation

The author reviews the nature of federal support for biological research over the past 40 years and the attendant roles of government, academia and industry in the innovation process. He notes a fundamental rearrangement in the social sponsorship of discovery and “a revolutionary compression” of the innovation process. This poses concomitant challenges to the government of the university and its faculty. The author outlines policy directions for the universities and proposes policy direction for academic scientists in terms of their collective responsibility for self-regulation, for example, in developing and maintaining criteria for peer review in the scientific community as a whole.     

Yellowstone's history: A backdrop to the nation's and the author's scientific development

Using personal anecdotes, the author examines the history of Yellowstone National Park and its affect on the development of scientific research, on public policy concerning national parks, and on his own interests and career. He describes how the scientific principles that were first used in exploring the Yellowstone region have become the instruments of science education for many US citizens, both expert and amateur.     

Classifying and indexing of patent documents —a retired patent documentalist looks back

The author, former Head of Information and Documentation at the German patent office, gives his recollections of more than 30 years of international cooperation. He reviews the work of the former ICEREPAT committees and the development of the IPC and outlines his opinions on the problems still associated with searching of patent documents.     

Technology and political philosophy

While a great many scientists and engineers feel that science and politics do not mix, political theorists feel completely free to talk about the influence of politics on science and technology. The author does not try to resolve this curious anomaly. Indeed, he simply assumes as background the body of literature by political theorists on science, technology and society. What the paper does is sort out that literature, picking out some of the principal types. A second aim of the paper is to urge scientists and engineeers not to ignore this body of literature; becoming familiar with it may even help them in practical efforts to deal with such issues as government regulation of science and technology.     

Human genetic engineering

The author addresses the new ethical and conceptual uncertainties posed by the application of gene-splicing techniques to human beings, an application of technology that raises complex ethical and social public policy issues. The author reviews the advances in the medical uses of gene-splicing, and addresses their consequences on (1) human genetic makeup; (2) intergenerational responsibilities; (3) the distribution of social benefits; and (4) the conception of what a person is. He describes the first two effects as posing new ethical uncertainties by being able to change the human gene pool, and with that change affect people's links to-and responsibilities for-their progeny. The latter two raise new questions of conceptual uncertainty concerning how these technologies will be distributed and to whom, and the resulting social and public consequences that arise from the potentially profound genetic changes possible to the individual. The author concludes by noting the need for circumspection to avoid the unfavorable effects of successes with this technology, which can be done, he notes, by using those goals and values that constitute the ethics and practice of medicine, namely, the application of science and art to human needs.     

University/corporate research agreements

The author examines the evolving university-industry relationships in the biotechnology area, addressing the conceptual basis for such arrangements and the resultant contract issues. He examines the need for development of policies in academia that will accommodate the needs of both government and industry without harming the integrity or institutional objectives of the university. The author then recommends a number of directives for written rules to help achieve these objectives, especially ones relating to patenting and licensing of inventions developed under industrial support.     

Public confidence in scientific research: The British response to genetic engineering

The author, former Chairman of the Genetic Manipulation Advisory Group (GMAG), describes the development of the United Kingdom's set of standards and practices for recombinant DNA research. He outlines the problem GMAG faced initially as it organized to engage scientists and lay members to the tasks at hand. The author recounts the work of GMAG and compares it with the work of NIH, describing further its collaboration with NIH and similar scientific bodies in Europe to ensure a commonality of practices. Then he comments on scientific activity within political bodies, such as the European Economic Community (EEC). The author concludes by urging that some kind of advisory group be formed akin to GMAG to advise and inform the public in unbiased ways about the contributions of genetic engineering to such areas as foods, disease resistance, new sources of energy, conversions of energy, conversions of wastes, vaccines, and anticancer drugs.     

Risk, uncertainty and regulation

This paper reviews the relationship between scientific evidence, uncertainty, risk and regulation. Risk has many different meanings. Furthermore, if risk is defined as the likelihood of an event happening multiplied by its impact, subjective perceptions of risk often diverge from the objective assessment. Scientific evidence may be ambiguous. Scientific experts are called upon to assess risks, but there is often uncertainty in their assessment, or disagreement about the magnitude of the risk. The translation of risk assessments into policy is a political judgement that includes consideration of the acceptability of the risk and the costs and benefits of legislation to reduce the risk. These general points are illustrated with reference to three examples: regulation of risk from pesticides, control of bovine tuberculosis and pricing of alcohol as a means to discourage excessive drinking.     

The status, recent progress and promise of superconductingmaterials for practical applications

The author summarizes the progress in materials science and engineering that created today's superconducting technology. He reviews the state of the technology with conventional materials by looking at two particular applications: large-scale applications involving conductors, for example, magnets; and electronics and instrument applications. The state-of-the art is contrasted with the present understanding of the high-T_c oxide materials     

借鉴CBE模式 注重能力的培养

围绕“画法几何及工程制图”课程的教学改革，针对课时少、内容多、涉及专业知识面广等问题，根据学生毕业后从事的职业所必须具备的岗位能力，借鉴CBE的教学模式，应用现代教学方法和先进的VRML编程技术，结合现代工程实际，优选和整合教学内容，研制实时交互式CAI软件，并进行了教学实践。     

The impact of biotechnology on corporate law and regulation

The author describes how biotechnology relates to traditional corporate law and regulation, using as a basis public perceptions that this technology involves special hazards and has revolutionary implications. He notes not only the public feelings of environmental hazards, but also the moral and ethical issues. After examining the present regulatory framework, the author describes how public policy has developed in this perceived revolutionary area, as compared with the experience of nuclear power, and concludes by noting the substantial future impacts biotechnology might pose for the law.     

铝合金表面化学转化技术的研究进展

随着环保要求的不断提高,传统的含铬化学转化膜已不能满足工业生产的要求,开发新型无铬环保的铝合金转化处理技术,已成为研究热点。研究表明,以新型无机盐和稀土为成膜物质的化学转化膜具有优良的表面防护能力。综述了当前新型化学转化技术的研究现状,介绍了无机和稀土转化膜的研究进展,分析了转化膜的性能特点,指出了当前化学转化处理技术存在的问题,展望了化学转化技术的发展趋势,明确了无机盐及稀土的用量对转化膜性能的影响、转化液中辅助物质对转化膜的影响是今后研究的方向。     

向钱学森院士学习

文章简要介绍了钱学森院士的生平,回顾了半个多世纪来钱老为我国科学技术事业做出的极其重大的历史贡献。钱老公开申明,所有当代科学技术学科都应该归于马克思主义辩证唯物论哲学指导下的知识体系。文章介绍了钱老在50年前就精辟地论述了科学与技术之间的辩证关系,他的论断对当前我国科技政策的制定仍具有重要的指导意义。文章阐述了钱老对控制论和系统科学的贡献,介绍了钱老《工程控制论》的出版在全世界引起的轰动与产生的巨大影响。同时,钱老基于所承担的工作性质和经历,总结出系统工程的概念和方法,发展了关于复杂巨系统的科学思想,已被科学界和社会各界中许多人所接受,用于分析解决各类重大命题。     

美国联邦政府与加州机动车排放监管工作比对分析

近年来随着机动车排放缺陷而引起的召回活动频发,加强机动车排放监管愈发受到各国政府的关注.美国作为汽车排放法规与汽车产品召回的先驱者,已形成一套完善且独具特色的机动车排放监管模式——美国联邦政府与加州地区机动车排放监管并行.明确联邦与加州监管模式的异同,对于我国机动车排放召回具有重要借鉴意义.本文将从美国机动车排放召回主管部门、排放立法、排放标准、排放召回监管流程4个方面,对美国联邦政府与加州地区机动车排放监管进行比对分析.