Nonperformance influences on performance evaluations: A laboratory phenomenon?

Reviews research that investigated the effects of nonperformance factors (i.e., gender and race) on a variety of organizational criteria, including performance evaluations. It is argued that previous findings are attributable to a research design that bears little resemblance to the performance appraisal process in real organizational contexts. 134 Black and 417 White male candidates for a police-department promotion were rated on a battery of attitude and behavior measures by 3 of the 14 Black and 18 White interviewers to examine the effects of 2 nonperformance factors (ratee and rater race) and an index of ratee past performance on performance ratings. Results of a higher-order MANOVA showed significant effects of ratee race, past performance, rater race, and a Ratee?×?Rater interaction. All of these sources of variance combined, however, accounted for no more than 4% of the total variance in performance ratings. Reasons for the low relationship between past performance and oral interview performance, which involve dissimilarity between rating dimensions and interview demand characteristics, are discussed. Thus, the applicability of results from past laboratory studies to performance evaluation in real organizational environments is questioned. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initial evaluations in the interview: Relationships with subsequent interviewer evaluations and employment offers.

The authors of this study examine how evaluations made during an early stage of the structured interview (rapport building) influence end of interview scores, subsequent follow-up employment interviews, and actual internship job offers. Candidates making better initial impressions received more internship offers (r = .22) and higher interviewer ratings (r = .42). As predicted, initial evaluations of candidate competence extend beyond liking and similarity to influence subsequent interview outcomes from the same interviewer (ΔR2 = .05), from a separate interviewer (ΔR2 = .05), and from another interviewer who skipped rapport building (ΔR2 = .05). In contrast, assessments of candidate liking and similarity were not significantly related to other judgments when ratings were provided by different interviewers. The findings of this study thus indicate that initial impressions of candidates influence employment outcomes, and that they may be based on useful judgments of candidate competence that occur in the opening minutes of the structured interview. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived interviewer expertness and attractiveness: Effects of interviewer behavior and attire and interview setting.

80 undergraduate students had a brief interview with 1 of 2 female interviewers in 1 of 8 conditions defined by interviewer role (expert or attractive), interviewer attire (professional or casual), and interview setting (professional or casual). Following the interview, students rated the interviewers on a counselor rating form. Data indicate that only counselor role behavior significantly affected Ss' perceptions of interviewer attractiveness, while perceptions of expertness seemed to have been affected jointly by role and attire. Within-cell comparisons revealed that for nearly all Ss, the relative magnitude of expertness as compared to attractiveness ratings was determined by interviewer behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and race composition of assessment center groups as a determinant of peer and assessor ratings.

Evaluated the effects of sex and race composition of assessment center groups on assessment center ratings for 54 racially and sexually mixed groups. Results indicate that there were minimal effects as a result of the race–sex composition of the group, but some assessment ratings for Black females were negatively and significantly correlated with the number of White males in the assessment group. The ratings of White males tended to be higher when the number of White males in the assessment group increased. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparability of interviewer, group, and individual interview ratings.

Compared interview trait ratings made by individual and groups of managers following exposure to videotaped interview playbacks with ratings made by experienced interviewers participating in 34 live interviews couched in a typical entry-level managerial employment setting. A convergent and discriminant validity analysis was made to assess the adequacy of the interview rating procedure. Mean ratings made by groups of managers were similar to mean ratings made by the interviewers. Agreement between the 2 dissimilar rater types using direct (face to face) and indirect (videotaped) stimuli indicated that perceptual distortion was now a strong factor. Individual managers' mean ratings suggested a leniency effect. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What you see may not be what you get: Relationships among self-presentation tactics and ratings of interview and job performance.

The image candidates portray in the interview, via appearance, impression management, and verbal and nonverbal behavior, has been hypothesized to influence interviewer ratings. Through the lenses of social influence and interdependence theories, this meta-analysis investigated (a) the magnitude of the relationship between these 3 self-presentation tactics and interviewer ratings, (b) whether these tactics also are correlated with later job performance, and (c) whether important theoretical moderators (e.g., the level of interview structure, the rating source, the use of field or experimental designs) affect these relationships. Results reveal that what you see in the interview may not be what you get on the job and that the unstructured interview is particularly impacted by these self-presentation tactics. Additionally and surprisingly, moderator analyses of these relationships found that the type of research design (experimental vs. field) does not moderate these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and situational factors in the recruitment interview.

Investigated the impact of various perceived recruitment interviewer traits, behaviors, and attitudes on job candidate interview evaluations and subjective probabilities of accepting a job. It was based on 112 1st- and 2nd-yr master's degree students at a graduate school of business and public administration. Results show that compared to the worst interviewers, the best ones had an impact such that candidates perceived: interest and concern from the interviewer, confrontation of the candidates' strengths and limitations, a younger successful man interviewing, and the possibility of a high salary. Candidates gave higher probabilities of accepting a job offer to those interviews in which they had an interest in receiving an offer, where the interviewer was seen as showing interest and concern for them, and where the interviewer discussed the careers of other employees with master's degrees in business administration in his company. An interaction among candidates' desires for mutually trusting and respectful interpersonal relations at work, their perception of the interpersonal qualities of their recruitment interviews, and their evaluation of the interviews was found. Candidates with higher interpersonal needs tended to perceive the best interviews as less interpersonally satisfying the worst interviews as more interpersonally satisfying than the candidates with lower interpersonal needs. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial group differences in employment interview evaluations.

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effect of race on employment interview evaluations. A meta-analysis of 31 studies found that both Black and Hispanic applicants received interview ratings that on average were only about one quarter of a standard deviation lower than those for White applicants. Thus, interviews as a whole do not appear to affect minorities nearly as much as mental ability tests. Results also suggested that (a) high-structure interviews have lower group differences on average than low-structure interviews, (b) group differences tend to decrease as the complexity of the job increases, and (c) group differences tend to be higher when there is a greater proportion of a minority in the applicant pool. Implications and directions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analysis of ratee race effects in performance ratings.

Conducted a meta-analysis of how the race of the ratee affects performance ratings by examining 74 studies with a total sample of 17,159 ratees for White raters and 14 studies with 2,428 ratees for Black raters. The 5 moderators examined were the study setting, rater training, type of rating, rating purpose, and the racial composition of the work group. Results show that the corrected mean correlations between ratee race and ratings for White and Black raters were .183 and –.220, with 95% confidence intervals that excluded zero for both rater groups. Substantial moderating effects were found for study setting and for the saliency of Blacks in the sample. Race effects were more likely in field settings when Blacks composed a small percentage of the work force. Both Black and White raters gave significantly higher ratings to members of their own race. It is suggested that future research should focus on understanding the process underlying race effects. References for the studies included are appended. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Policy capturing in the employment interview.

Employed an information-processing perspective to analyze the judgments of individual employment interviewers in a corporate setting. Linear policy-capturing equations were estimated from 3 interviewers' ratings of 120 job applicants in live and audiotaped interviews. The equations were evaluated across interviewers to identify sources of predictive validity and consistency in information use. In competition with the interviewers from whom they were derived, regression models displayed higher predictive validities in a majority of instances. Following training on selected rating dimensions, interviewers' predictive validities improved. After interviewer training, the regression models of the training dimensions yielded higher predictive validities than all 3 interviewers. Results suggest specific directions for enhancing the effectiveness of interviewing in the employee-selection process. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Similarity of post-interview trait rating intercorrelations as a contributor to interrater agreement in a structured employment interview.

Examined the influence of degree of interview structure, use of scaled-expectation rating scales, and similarity of postinterview trait rating intercorrelations on interrater agreement in employment interviews. 9 nursing interviewers sat as a selection board and interviewed and independently rated 54 senior nursing students. The interviews were highly structured, and ratings were recorded on scaled-expectation scales for general staff nursing positions. Although all interviewers shared essentially the same structure among their postinterview trait ratings, interrater agreement was no better than in previous studies. This finding shows the power of halo in the interview setting (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of racial similarity and interviewer intimacy in a peer counseling analogue.

The effects of the intimacy of an interviewer's disclosure and the racial composition of a dyad on interviewees' liking for an interviewer, impressions of the interviewer, and subsequent self-disclosure were examined in a peer counseling analogue. We predicted and found that intimate disclosure by an interviewer is especially useful in eliciting self-disclosure from Black subjects. Furthermore, we predicted and found that differences in liking for and impressions of intimate and nonintimate interviewers would be particularly pronounced in those dyads in which the interviewer was White and the interviewee was Black with greater liking for and more positive impressions of the intimately disclosing interviewer. We discuss the implications of these results for the reported tendency for Blacks to terminate counseling prematurely and to disclose less than Whites in counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A field study of race and age similarity effects on interview ratings in conventional and situational interviews.

Examined the effects of interviewer and interviewee race and age similarity on interview outcomes under 2 different interview formats: a conventional structured panel interview and a situational panel interview. A total of 2,805 applicants were interviewed. The panels consisted of same-, mixed-, or different-race and same-, mixed-, or different-age groups. Analyses revealed stronger same-race effects with the conventional structured interview than with the situational interview. Furthermore, these same-race effects could be avoided by using mixed-race interview panels. No age similarity effects were detected with either interview procedure. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of the interview in police officer selection.

The selection interview is widely used in law enforcement agencies for making decisions about police academy appointments. The present study examined the validity of the interview for predicting on-the-street performance of police officers in the Dade County (Florida) Public Safety Department. Data were gathered in a 1-yr period during which 399 White male applicants were interviewed and 150 of them were hired. The ratings made by the "oral board" at the end of each interview comprised the predictor variables. A principal components analysis of the averaged interview trait ratings indicated that there were 3 major components in the trait ratings. A principal components analysis of supervisory ratings of performance identified 4 oblique performance factors. A validity analysis demonstrated rated performance could be predicted from averaged interview factor scores but not from averaged overall recommendations of the interviewers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trustworthiness and influence: A reexamination in an extended counseling analogue.

An extended counseling analog interview study was designed to evaluate the effects of counselor trustworthiness on counselor influence in an interview setting. 36 college males rated their achievement motivation (a) 1 wk before, (b) immediately following, and (c) 1 wk after the 2nd of 2 20-min individual interviews in which they explored their achievement motivation. Both interviews ended with an attempt by an interviewer to influence their achievement-motivation ratings. Four conditions were defined by (1) 2 male interviewers and (2) trustworthy and untrustworthy interviewer role performance. Results indicate that the role manipulation was successful. These role discriminations continued to persist, as measured by the 2nd role ratings taken 1 wk after the original ratings. Results indicate that interviewer trustworthiness had no immediate effect on interviewer influence but did exert a significant influence at the 1-wk follow-up testing. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring the handshake in employment interviews.

The authors examined how an applicant's handshake influences hiring recommendations formed during the employment interview. A sample of 98 undergraduate students provided personality measures and participated in mock interviews during which the students received ratings of employment suitability. Five trained raters independently evaluated the quality of the handshake for each participant. Quality of handshake was related to interviewer hiring recommendations. Path analysis supported the handshake as mediating the effect of applicant extraversion on interviewer hiring recommendations, even after controlling for differences in candidate physical appearance and dress. Although women received lower ratings for the handshake, they did not on average receive lower assessments of employment suitability. Exploratory analysis suggested that the relationship between a firm handshake and interview ratings may be stronger for women than for men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Representational systems and eye movements in an interview.

Tested the assumption that the perceived relationship between counselor (interviewer) and client (participant) is enhanced using the model postulated by J. Grinder et al (1977). 72 17–27 yr olds participated in 1 of 2 interview conditions: (a) a congruent interview in which interviewers responded with "perceptual predicates" that matched Ss' representational system as indicated by eye movement and (b) an incongruent interview in which interviewers mismatched Ss' representational system. Empathy, ease, anxiety, and hostility were measured by 3 self-report instruments: Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-Empathic Understanding Scale, Ease of Communication Inventory, and Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. Seven hypotheses used to test the main effects and interactions of sex of interviewer, sex of participant, and condition revealed questionable support for the notion of increased rapport when interviewers responded congruently to representational systems indicated by Ss' eye movements. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Consulting the application form prior to the interview: An essential step in the selection process.

Conducted a field experiment to determine whether consulting the application form prior to an employment interview delays the formation of early impressions and allows more information to be considered before an initial decision is made by the interviewer. 28 experienced recruiters interviewed a role-playing applicant for a hypothetical job opening. Half of these interviewers were provided with application forms prior to the interview, and half were not. Each interview was terminated at the initial decision point, and measures (a 20-item questionnaire and an accept–reject scale) were administered to determine both the quantity and quality of information the interviewers possessed at that point. Results suggest that preventing the interviewer from consulting the application form prior to the interview has no effect on initial decision times, nor does it reduce the interviewer's confidence in that decision. Furthermore, when the initial decision is made, it is based on less complete information about the applicant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of client perceived need and counselor role on clients' behaviors.

Employed a multifactor 2 (high and low need) by 2 (expert and inexpert role) by 2 (interviewers) fixed effects design to evaluate the effects of S perceived need and interviewer role on an S's opinions and behaviors. 90 female undergraduates attended a 20-min counseling analog interview in which they discussed their problem-solving skills. During this time the interviewer attempted to alter Ss' ratings of their problem-solving skills as well as 2 extrainterview behaviors. Following the interview, Ss rated the interviewer on a counselor rating form, responded to 2 problem-solving inventories, and were given the opportunity to engage in 2 self-help activities outside of the interview. The results indicate that the roles were perceived as intended and resulted in the intended opinion changes. Perceived interviewer expertness did influence Ss to engage in certain self-help activities, but the scope of those behaviors was limited. Contrary to earlier postulations, differential S need did not affect interviewer's ability to influence Ss' opinions or behaviors. Additional research is needed to test the theoretical formula regarding counselor power, as well as to explore the range of effects of perceived counselor expertness. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interviewer validity as a function of interview structure, biographical data, and interviewee order.

Investigated effects of degree of interview structure, presence or absence of interviewee biographical information, and interviewee order on interviewer validity. 54 undergraduates in personnel management and 36 social-worker supervisors serving as judges rated 6 currently employed social workers assuming the role of job applicants in videotaped interviews. Low validities, calculated using interview ratings and performance-measure criterion scores based on a job analysis of the social-worker position, were obtained in all treatment conditions. Analysis of variance revealed that only interviewee order had an appreciable effect on interviewer validity. Analysis of the interview ratings revealed the presence of halo error and low interrater reliability. Possible design limitations and future research suggestions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)