Extrusion processing of Al–Li–Mg–Zr alloy

Abstract

The hot deformation behaviour of an Al–Li–Mg–Zr alloy was characterised in hot torsion and extrusion. The alloy was found to have similar hot ductility to existing high strength aluminium alloys, but this could be maintained at higher temperatures. Billets were extruded over a range of process conditions and a limit diagram was constructed for surface cracking. All the extrusions were found to be partially recrystallised after deformation, but the volume fraction of recrystallisation was a strong function of billet temperature and extrusion ratio. In addition, the unrecrystallised areas contained a recovered substructure where the subgrain size was inversely proportional to the temperature compensated strain rate. The as extruded structure was retained during solution treatment and as a result final mechanical properties were strongly dependent on the extrusion conditions. The use of high billet temperatures and low extrusion ratios gave the best combination of strength and toughness.

MST/839     

Temperature dependence of impact toughness in Al–Li–Cu–Mg–Zr alloys

Abstract

The dependence on temperature of the impact toughness in Al–Li–Cu–Mg–Zr alloys was investigated focusing on the low temperature impact toughness. The impact toughness of Al–Li–Cu–Mg–Zr alloys in the low temperature region (≤ 423 K) increased with decreasing temperature. Laminated cracks, the number of which increased with the increase in impact toughness in the low temperature region, were observed and it was suggested that the appearance of these cracks resulted in part of the increase of the impact toughness of this alloy. The spectra of potassium and sodium were detected from the fracture surface of a specimen tested at room temperature. This indicates that a low melting point metal phase seems to affect the impact toughness near room temperature, i.e. this phase seems to produce the liquid metal embrittlement locally at the grain boundary.

MST/787     

Structure and properties of Al–Li–Cu–Mg–Zr alloy AA 2091 in sheet form

Abstract

The structure and properties of Al–Li–Cu–Mg–Zr alloy AA 2091 in sheet form have been studied. Static and dynamic behaviour of material aged to the ‘damage tolerant’ category has been found to be at least equivalent to current BS L109 (AA 2024-T3) sheet while re-solution heat treatment did not appear to degrade properties. In contrast, although static strength parameters of stretched material aged to the ‘medium strength’ category were comparable with those of BS L157 (AA 2014-T6), re-solution heat treatment effected a noticeable decrease, with a failure to achieve 0·2%PS levels. Mechanical properties and subsequent fracture behaviour were correlated with submicrostructure throughout the investigation.

MST/958     

Intergranular fracture of Al–Li–Cu–Mg alloy resulting from non-equilibrium eutectic melting during solution treatment

Abstract

This investigation has examined intergranular fracture during heat treatment and deformation of an Al–Li–Cu–Mg alloy and of an Al–Li–Cu alloy. When solution treatment of the Al–Li–Cu–Mg alloy was initiated by rapid heating to temperatures ≥ 545°C, non-equilibrium eutectic melting of a grain boundary precipitate phase occurred and the liquid spread along grain boundaries as a thin film. On quenching, intergranular cracks were observed at grain boundaries into which a liquid film had penetrated during solution treatment. For less rapid heating rates, non-equilibrium eutectic melting did not occur and no intergranular cracks were observed after quenching. No evidence of non-equilibrium eutectic melting was observed in the Al–Li–Cu alloy irrespective of the rate of heating to 550°C. During tensile testing of as quenched and quenched and aged specimens of the two alloys, intergranular fracture occurred in most specimens, whether or not non-equilibrium eutectic melting had taken place during solution treatment, indicating that at least one additional mechanism of intergranular fracture was initiated by deformation.

MST/947     

Thermal properties of Mg–Li and Mg–Li–Al alloys

Abstract

The present work is a study of the thermal properties of Mg–xLi–y Al with x= 4, 8 and 12 wt-% and y= 0, 3 and 5 wt-% as a function of temperature in the range 20–375°C. The thermal diffusivity and coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) have been measured and the thermal conductivity calculated. The thermal diffusivity of all alloys decreases with an increasing content of lithium. The CTE of the single phase alloys Mg–4Li and Mg–12Li has a linear character, and the CTE of Mg–12Li is higher than that of Mg–4Li. The influence of thermal stresses in the two phase alloy Mg–8Li is perceptible in terms of temperature dependence of the CTE. In Mg–4Li–3Al and Mg–4Li–5Al, an influence of the solution of AlLi phase on all the studied thermal properties has been found.     

Microstructure and precipitation in Al–Li–Cu–Mg–(Mn,Zr) alloys

Abstract

Hot rolled Al–6Li–1Cu–1Mg–0·2Mn (at.-%) (Al–1·6Li–2·2Cu–0·9Mg–0·4Mn, wt-%) and Al–6Li–1Cu–1Mg–0·03Zr (at.-%) (Al–1·6Li–2·3Cu–1Mg–0·1Zr, wt-%) alloys developed for age forming were studied by tensile testing, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), three-dimensional atom probe (3DAP), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). For both alloys, DSC analysis shows that ageing at 150°C leads initially to formation of zones/clusters, which are later gradually replaced by S phase. On ageing at 190°C, S phase formation is completed within 12 h. The precipitates identified by 3DAP and TEM can be classified into (a) Li rich clusters containing Cu and Mg, (b) a plate shaped metastable precipitate (similar to GPB2 zones/S″), (c) S phase and (d) δ′ spherical particles rich in Li. The Zr containing alloy also contains β′ (Al₃Zr) precipitates and composite β′/δ′ particles. The β′ precipitates reduce recrystallisation and grain growth leading to fine grains and subgrains.     

Mechanisms governing cyclic fracture in an Al–Cu–Li alloy

Abstract

The fracture behaviour of a peak-aged, partially recrystallized Al–4·5Cu–1·21Li–0·51Mn–0·20Cd alloy has been investigated as a function of strain amplitude, stress intensity, and environment. It was found that the failure was predominantly intergranular separation, regardless of the environment, stress intensity, or strain amplitude, and that the fracture behaviour was influenced mostly by intrinsic microstructural features, rather than the nature of the environment. The shearable nature of matrix strengthening precipitates, large recrystallized grains, and precipitate-free zones along the high-angle grain boundaries aid in localizing the deformation, resulting in low-energy intergranular fracture. The iron- and silicon-rich intermetallic precipitates in the alloy promote void nucleation following fracture of the particle. A model is proposed which suggests the need for high stresses and strains for the initiation and spontaneous growth and coalescence of microvoids. The mechanisms of fracture behaviour of the alloy are discussed in terms of several concurrent processes involving strength of the material, intrinsic microstructural effects, deformation behaviour, state of stress, and strain.

MST/497     

Effect of multi-directional forging and ageing on fracture toughness of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys

Strength, ductility and fracture toughness are the most important mechanical properties of engineering materials. In this work, an Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy was subjected to multi-directional forging (MF) and ageing treatment. Microstructural evolution was studied by optical and electron microscopy and strength, ductility and fracture toughness were researched. After MF, the dislocation density was increased and the microstructure was refined. The strength and fracture toughness were increased, while the ductility was decreased sharply. Without compromising the strength, the ductility was improved significantly after ageing. The fracture toughness was increased further. The coarse and discontinuously distributed grain boundary precipitates were found to be responsible for higher fracture toughness of the fine-grained structure Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy.     

Compressive creep behaviour of Mg–Li–Al alloy

Abstract

The compressive creep behaviour of as cast Mg–14Li–1·3Al (wt-%) alloy was investigated in the temperature range of 20?85°C and under different compressive stress in the range of 37·3–74·6 MPa with special apparatus. Primary creep deformation and steady creep rate increase with temperature and applied stress. The compressive creep behaviour obeys an empirical equation ln t=C?nln σ + Q/RT, where t is the time to a selected creep strain, σ is the applied stress, T is the absolute temperature, R is the gas constant, and C, n, and Q are constants for the experimental alloy. The average values of the exponent n and the creep activation energy Q are 4·33 and 101·13 kJ mol^?1 respectively. The creep rate controlling mechanism is the dislocation climb and the lattice diffusion of Li in the experimental alloy under the testing conditions.     

Al—Li—Cu—Mg—Zr合金的晶界断裂

本文通过室温拉伸试验，利用扫描电镜和透射电镜研究了Ａｌ－Ｌｉ－Ｃｕ－Ｍｇ－Ｚｒ合金不同时效状态下的拉伸性能和断裂行为，结果表明，该合金的力学性能与主要强化相δ＇（Ａｌ３Ｌｉ）的尺寸有关，其断裂行为决定于位错的共面滑移程度和滑移与晶界沉淀相的交互作用。     

Deformation behavior of an Al–Cu–Mg–Mn–Zr alloy during hot compression

Deformation behavior of an Al–Cu–Mg–Mn–Zr alloy during hot compression was characterized in present work by high-temperature testing and transmission electron microscope (TEM) studies. The true stress–true strain curves exhibited a peak stress at a critical stain. The peak stress decreased with increasing deformation temperature and decreasing strain rate, which can be described by Zener–Hollomon (Z) parameter in hyperbolic sine function with the deformation activation energy 277.8 kJ/mol. The processing map revealed the existence of an optimum hot-working regime between 390 and 420 °C, under strain rates ranging from 0.1 to 1 s⁻¹. The main softening mechanism of the alloy was dynamic recovery at high lnZ value; continuous dynamic recrystallization (DRX) occurred as deformed at low lnZ value. The dynamic precipitation of Al₃Zr and Al₂₀Cu₂Mn₃ dispersoids during hot deformation restrained DRX and increased the hot deformation activation energy of the alloy.     

Al－Li－Cu－Mg－Zr合金的晶界断裂

本文通过室温拉伸试验，利用扫描电镜和透射电镜研究了Ａｌ－Ｌｉ－Ｃｕ－Ｍｇ－Ｚｒ合金不同时效状态下的拉伸性能和断裂行为。结果表明，该合金的力学性能与主要强化相δ＇（Ａｌ３Ｌｉ）的尺寸有关，其断裂行为决定于位错的共面滑移程度和滑移与晶界沉淀相的交互作用。     

Extrusion of AI–Zn–Mg–Cu–Zr alloys

Abstract

Four aluminium alloys of different zinc/magnesium ratio have been studied under various extrusion conditions. The alloys were cast in steel book moulds and subjected to initial thermomechanical treatments. Studies were made of hot extrusions and cold hydrostatic extrusions and in each case the changes in the extrusion parameters were analysed. An attempt has been made to explain some of the extrusion defects which appeared in various extruded sections. The extrusion speed was found to be crucial, since sections developed surface cracks at higher speeds. The extrusion speed was also found to vary inversely with the extrusion ratio, with higher speeds at low ratios. A well defined solute–depleted weld zone was observed on each of the four faces of a square tube extruded using a porthole die. Thermal treatment was not found to improve this weak weld zone. Tubes extruded using a floating-mandrel die withstood pressure testing up to 550 MPa.

MST/43     

Characterization of microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–Cu–Mg–Ag–(Mn/Zr) alloy with high Cu:Mg

This study examines the effects of the addition of Mn or Zr on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy, tensile test, and tear test. The results showed that the alloy with Zr exhibited the highest strength and the lowest fracture toughness, which may be attributed to the segregation of the secondary phases containing the Zr element on the recrystallization grain boundaries. The alloy with Mn exhibited strength that is roughly equal to the Al–Cu–Mg–Ag alloy and the highest fracture toughness, which may be due to the formation of secondary phases containing Mn and Fe elements. Mn or Zr addition also has no remarkable influence on the characteristics of the precipitates. The Ω phase and a small quantity of θ′ phases dominated the microstructure of the three alloys after aging.     

Dynamic fracture of binary Al–Li alloy in torsion

Abstract

To investigate the mechanical properties of a binary Al–2·8Li alloy at high strain rates in as received (solution treated) and aged conditions, quasistatic and dynamic torsion tests were carried out. With increasing strain rate, the strength and ductility of the as received alloy increased and a change of the fracture mode from intergranular to transgranular was also observed. However, in the aged alloy, the intergranular fracture mode was predominant at both quasistatic and dynamic rates. At the grain boundary offsets on the fracture surface of the aged alloy, a large number of very fine dimples were observed. This evidence suggests that a ductile precipitate free zone may be present there.

MST/1043     

Effect of predeformation on microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–Cu–Li–Zr alloy containing Sc

Abstract

The effects of prior cold deformation on the microstructures and the room temperature mechanical properties of an Al–3·5Cu–1·5Li–0·22(Sc + Zr) alloy have been observed by using TEM and tensile test at room temperature. The results show that the alloy has the character of aging hardening, and the major phase of precipitation and strengthening is T₁ phase. The result also show that prior cold deformation leads to more dispersive and uniform distribution of T₁ precipitations. It accelerates aging response, causes earlier aging peak occurrence, and enhances strength greatly. However, the plasticity of the alloy is declined with prior cold deformation. In contrast, excessive prior cold deformation causes coarsening and heterogeneous distribution of T₁ phase. It also reduces the strength of the alloy, therefore, influences the composite properties of the alloy. The favourable prior cold deformation is about 3·5% under the experimental condition.     

Grain boundary fracture in Al–Li alloys

Abstract

In order to determine independently the roles of grain boundary (GB) δ-precipitates and shearable matrix δ′-precipitates in promoting low ductility in Al-Li alloys, three sets of samples of Al–10·7 at.-%Li–0·22 at.-%Mn were aged at 177°C, and the single edge notch slow bend Charpy toughnesses and yield strengths were determined. The first set of samples was from the as-quenched alloy, while the second and third were those previously peak aged, or overaged, and then reverted at 330°C to redissolve the matrix δ′ while leaving the GB δ. The results showed that the retained GB δ played a prominent role in promoting GB fracture, even in the absence of δ′. Comparison with high-strength AA 7375 aluminium alloy and with a γ/γ′ nickel-base superalloy either with or without GB carbides strongly supports the crucial role of GB precipitates in controlling ductility.

MST/482     

A comparison of crystallization behaviors of laser spot welded Zr–Cu–Ag–Al and Zr–Cu–Ni–Al bulk metallic glasses

A novel Ni-free Zr–Cu–Ag–Al ((Zr₄₈Cu₃₆Ag₈Al₈)Si_0.75) and a Zr–Cu–Ni–Al ((Zr₅₃Cu₃₀Ni₉Al₈)Si_0.5) bulk metallic glass (BMG), for comparison, were employed for Nd:YAG laser spot welding with three pre-selected energy inputs, including a low (6.2 J), a medium (8.0 J) and a high (9.2 J) energy input. After the welding process, the microstructure evolution, glass-forming ability (GFA) and mechanical properties of the welded samples were determined by a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the Vicker's microhardness test.     

Atomic bonding and mechanical properties of Al–Li–Zr alloy

The atomic bonding of Al–Li alloy with minor Zr is calculated according to the “Empirical Electronic Theory in Solids”. The result shows that the stronger interaction between Al and Zr atoms, which leads to form the Al–Zr segregation regions, promotes the precipitation of Al₃Zr particles and produces a remarkable refinement of Al₃Li grains in the alloy. Because there are the strongest covalent Al–Zr bonds in Al₃Zr and Al₃(Zr, Li) particles, these covalent bonds can cause a great resistance for dislocation movement, and is favorable to strengthen the alloy. On the other hand, with precipitating the Al₃(Zr, Li) particles, it causes the coherent interphase boundary energy of Al/Al₃Li to decrease, and atomic bonding is well matched in between the interface of two phases.     

Ageing response of a Al–Cu–Li 2198 alloy

The effects of different ageing treatments on microstructure evolution, properties and fracture are investigated in the present study. 2198 alloy exhibits strong ageing response during ageing. It is found that tensile properties, hardness and conductivity of 2198 alloy are very sensitive to ageing temperatures, which corresponds to different microstructures. In the naturally-aged condition (T3), only δ′ (Al₃Li) was detected. After artificial ageing (T8), large amounts of precipitates emerged and major precipitates that were detected turned to be δ′, θ′ (Al₂Cu) and T₁ (Al₂CuLi) phase. Exposure to higher temperature caused greater amounts of the precipitation. The constitution and morphology of precipitates varies with different ageing temperature; the major precipitates are δ′, θ′ when ageing below 160 °C, while above 160 °C, T₁ phase comes out in large numbers, becoming dominate strengthening phases gradually. Fracture transforms from a typical dimple type to a dimple-intergranular mixed type with the rise of ageing temperature.