Development of an analytical method and survey of foods for furan, 2-methylfuran and 3-methylfuran with estimated exposure

Furan has been found to form in foods during thermal processing. These findings, a classification of furan as a possibly carcinogenic to humans, and a limited amount of data on the concentration of furan in products on the Canadian market prompted the authors to conduct a survey of canned and jarred food products. Methyl analogues of furan, 2-methylfuran and 3-methylfuran, were analysed concurrently with furan via a newly developed isotope dilution method, as these analogues were detected in foods in the authors’ earlier work and are likely to undergo a similar metabolic fate as furan itself. The paper reports data on 176 samples, including 17 samples of baby food. The vast majority of samples were packaged in cans or jars. Furan was detected above 1 ng g^?1 in all non-baby food samples with a median of 28 ng g^?1 and concentrations ranging from 1.1 to 1230 ng g^?1. Also, 96% of these samples were found to contain 2-methylfuran above 1 ng g^?1 with a median of 12.8 ng g^?1 and a maximum concentration of 152 ng g^?1, while 81% of samples were found to contain 3-methylfuran above 1 ng g^?1 with a median of 6 ng g^?1 and a maximum concentration of 151 ng g^?1. Similarly, furan was detected above 1 ng g^?1 in all baby food samples with a median of 66.2 ng g^?1 and concentrations ranging from 8.5 to 331 ng g^?1. Also, 100% of these samples were found to contain 2-methylfuran above 1 ng g^?1 with a median of 8.7 ng g^?1 and a maximum concentration of 50.2 ng g^?1, while 65% of samples were found to contain 3-methylfuran above 1 ng g^?1 with a median of 1.6 ng g^?1 and a maximum concentration of 22.9 ng g^?1. Additionally, three coffee samples were analysed ‘as is’, without brewing, and were found to have high levels of furans, especially 2-methylfuran, at a maximum of 8680 ng g^?1. Using this data set, dietary exposures to furan and total furans were calculated. Average furan and total furan intakes by adults (≥20 years) were estimated at approximately 0.37 and 0.71 µg kg^?1 of body weight day^?1 respectively.     

Survey of furan in heat processed foods by headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and estimated adult exposure

Furan is a suspected human carcinogen that is formed in some processed foods at low ng per g levels. Recent improvements in analytical methodology and scientific instrumentation have made it possible to accurately measure the amount of furan in a wide variety of foods. Results from analysis of more than 300 processed foods are presented. Furan was found at levels ranging from non-detectable (LOD, 0.2-0.9 ng g^-1) to over 100 ng g^-1. Exposure estimates for several adult food types were calculated, with brewed coffee being the major source of furan in the adult diet (0.15 µg kg^-1 body weight day^-1). Estimates of mean exposure to furan for different subpopulations were calculated. For consumers 2 years and older, the intake is estimated to be about 0.2 µg kg^-1 body weight day^-1.     

Furan in commercial baby foods from the Spanish market: estimation of daily intake and risk assessment

ABSTRACT

The occurrence of furan in commercial baby food samples from the Spanish market was evaluated using an automated headspace solid-phase microextraction method coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS). A total of 76 baby food samples including infant formula, baby cereals, fruit in cans and/or jars, vegetables, meat, and fish, were surveyed for furan content. The lowest concentration of this compound was found in infant formula (<0.02–0.33 ng ml^?1), and cereal-based food (0.15–2.1 ng g^?1) while baby food containing fish showed the highest concentrations (19–84 ng g^?1). Following recommendation of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the effect on furan content was evaluated of consumer home preparation of foods, heating and handling. Furan concentrations were reduced by up to 35% when samples were heated in a dish using microwave oven and by up to 53% when a hot water bath was used. Finally, we estimated the furan intake from baby food consumption (0.002–1.18 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1) and we calculated the margin of exposure (MOE) from samples as purchased and also after home preparation of the food. For infant formula and cereal baby foods, the MOEs (26,278–412,776) indicated no infant health concern or priority, while for meat and fish-based baby foods the values pointed to a potential public health risk, even considering the furan losses during preparation at home.     

Determination of furan levels in commercial samples of baby food from Brazil and preliminary risk assessment

Commercial baby food samples available on the Brazilian market (n = 31) were analysed for furan content using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method preceded by solid-phase microextraction. A limit of detection of 0.7 µg kg^?1, a limit of quantitation of 2.4 µg kg^?1, mean recoveries varying from 80% to 107%, and coefficients of variation ranging from 5.6% to 9.4% for repeatability and from 7.4% to 12.4% for within-laboratory reproducibility were obtained during an in-house validation. The levels of furan found in the samples were from not detected to 95.5 µg kg^?1. Samples containing vegetables and meat showed higher furan levels as compared with those containing only fruits. An exposure assessment showed furan intakes up to 2.4 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 (99th percentile) for babies fed exclusively with commercial baby foods. Margins of exposure obtained from intakes estimated in this work indicated a potential public health concern.     

Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisps to the Spanish population

Potato crisps are one of the food commodities that contribute most to overall dietary human exposure of acrylamide. This investigation has estimated the dietary exposure to acrylamide form potato crisps in the Spanish population. Sampling of potato crisps (n = 36) from 16 different producers were carried out in March 2008. An average level of 740 µg kg^?1 (ranging from 81 to 2622 µg kg^?1; minimum to maximum) and a median of 592 µg kg^?1 were obtained. Acrylamide levels in marketed potato crisps have been significantly reduced (nearly to 50%) compared with a previous sampling performed 4 years earlier. The observed signal value (90th percentile) was 1377 µg kg^?1 with 86% of the samples with acrylamide levels lower than 1000 µg kg^?1. Dietary exposure to acrylamide from potato crisp consumption in the total Spanish population was estimated to be 0.042 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 by using a deterministic approach based on the National consumption database. In a second study, dietary exposure (based on a 3-day food record) was determined to be 0.053 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for the adult population (17–60 years) and 0.142 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 for children (7–12 years). The contribution of potato crisps to the estimated dietary acrylamide exposure of the Spanish population is moderate as compared with other European Member States.     

Occurrence of furan in commercial processed foods in Brazil

Selected commercial processed foods available in the Brazilian market (306 samples) were analysed for furan content using a validated gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method preceded by headspace solid phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME-GC/MS). Canned and jarred foods, including vegetable, meat, fruit and sweet products, showed levels up to 32.8?µg?kg^?1, with the highest concentrations observed in vegetables and meats. For coffee, furan content ranged from 253.0 to 5021.4?µg?kg^?1 in the roasted ground coffee and from not detected to 156.6?µg?kg^?1 in the beverage. For sauces, levels up to 138.1?µg?kg^?1 were found. In cereal-based products, the highest concentrations (up to 191.3?µg?kg^?1) were observed in breakfast cereal (corn flakes), cracker (cream crackers) and biscuit (wafer). In general, these results are comparable with those reported in other countries and will be useful for a preliminary estimate of the furan dietary intake in Brazil.     

Ethyl carbamate in fermented foods and beverages: dietary exposure of the Hong Kong population in 2007–2008

To evaluate the potential public health risk of ethyl carbamate (EC), EC exposure from fermented foods and beverages for Hong Kong population was estimated. In 276 samples analysed, EC was detected (limit of detection (LOD) at 0.4?µg?kg^?1) in 202 samples (73%), with higher levels in fermented red bean curd (150–650?µg?kg^?1) and yellow wine (140–390?µg?kg^?1), while low or non-detected (ND) in preserved vegetables (ND–10?µg?kg^?1) and fermented tea (ND–15?µg?kg^?1). The estimated dietary exposure from all fermented foods and beverages was 8.27?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, while exposure excluding alcoholic beverages was 5.42?ng?kg^?1?bw?day^?1, with calculated margins of exposure (MOEs) at 3.6?×?10⁴ and 5.5?×?10⁴ respectively. The risk of adverse health effects was low for the average population but higher (MOE?of?10³) for high consumers of alcoholic beverages especially habitual drinkers of alcoholic types with high EC contents.     

Dietary exposure of secondary school students in Hong Kong to polybrominated diphenyl ethers from foods of animal origin

This paper reports levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in a wide range of foods of animal origin and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong, China. Dietary exposure to PBDEs was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of PBDEs in food samples taken from local market in 2008. The PBDE levels on a fresh weight basis for fish ranged from 13 to 6600 pg g^?1, for seafood and seafood products ranged from 15 to 1200 pg g^?1, for meat and meat products ranged from 23 to 3500 pg g^?1, for poultry ranged from 68 to 670 pg g^?1, for eggs ranged from 280 to 800 pg g^?1, and for dairy products ranged from 12 to 480 pg g^?1. The dietary exposures of secondary school students for the average and high consumers were estimated to be 2.6 and 6.4 ng kg^?1 body weight day^?1, respectively. According to the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), for the more toxic PBDE congeners, adverse effects would be unlikely to occur in laboratory animals at doses of less than approximately 100 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures (38,000 for average consumers and 16,000 for high consumers) showed that the estimated dietary exposures of secondary school students were far below any adverse effect dose observed in laboratory animals and were therefore of low concern for human health.     

Determination of furan in jarred baby food purchased from the Spanish market by headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS)

The aim of this paper is to offer a method based on headspace gas chromatography-mass (HS-GC-MS) spectrometry technique in-house validated and use to estimate furan concentrations in jarred baby-food samples purchased from the Spanish market. The validation was performed according to ISO 17025 and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) requirements and the results obtained (limit of detection (LOD) = 0.05 µg kg^?1; limit of quantification (LOQ) = 4 µg kg^?1, lowest validated level; relative standard deviation (RSD) = 3.1–10.5%; recoveries = 85.4–101.5%) confirm that this method is fit for the routine analysis of furan in jarred baby food control. Furan was analysed in 39 different baby-food samples and the mean levels varied between 64.6 µg kg^?1 (rice and chicken samples) and less than or equal to the LOQ (fruit-based samples). The mean concentrations found for the different matrices were 5.0, 37.8, 25.2, 33.8 and 30.5 µg kg^?1 for fruit, vegetables, meat/vegetables, fish/vegetables and dairy-containing baby foods, respectively. According to the statistical analyses, fruit-based baby-food samples had significantly lower concentrations of furan. Mean values for the other matrices were at least five times higher, and this is in accordance with the levels reported in other studies.     

Are Chileans exposed to dietary furan?

Chilean consumer preferences include foods that may contain considerable amounts of furan, a potential human carcinogen. However, there is no information regarding dietary exposure to furan in Chile. Thus, the objective of this work was to determine the Chilean exposure to dietary furan. To accomplish this objective, the furan concentration of 14 types of commercial foods processed at high temperature were analysed based on a modified headspace-GC/MS (HS-GC/MS) method in which the limits of detection for different food matrices ranged from 0.01 to 0.6 ng g^?1. In addition, a risk assessment was made with exposure estimates based on dietary data from national studies on different age groups (9-month-old babies, school children, adults and elderly people). Of the food items surveyed “American”-type coffee (espresso coffee plus hot water) obtained from automatic coffee machine (936 ng g^?1) and low moisture starchy products like crisps and “soda”-type crackers showed the highest furan concentrations (259 and 91 ng g^?1, respectively). Furthermore, furan was also found in samples of breakfast cereals (approximately 20 ng g^?1), jarred fruit baby foods (8.5 ng g^?1) and orange juice (7.0 ng g^?1). School children (aged 9–13 years) represented the highest intake of furan (about 500 ng kg^?1_bw day^?1), with margins of exposure of 2479 and 2411, respectively, which points to a possible public health risk.     

Content of selenium, total and inorganic arsenic and bioaccessibility of arsenic in children diets of Mexico

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the intake of selenium, total and inorganic arsenic and the bioaccessibility of arsenic in diets of Mexican schoolchildren using an in vitro method. RESULTS: Total and inorganic arsenic concentrations in the diets ranged from 0.05 to 1.15 mg kg^?1 dry weight (DW) and from 0.023 to 0.088 mg kg^?1 DW respectively, while selenium levels were between 0.08 and 0.20 mg kg^?1 DW. Daily intake of total and inorganic arsenic ranged from 0.15 to 10.49 µg day^?1 kg^?1 body weight (BW) and from 0.06 to 1.11 µg day^?1 kg^?1 BW respectively, while that of selenium varied from 0.29 to 2.63 µg day^?1 kg^?1 BW. Bioaccessibility of total and inorganic arsenic ranged from 4 to 97% (mean 44 ± 21.5%) and from 33 to 97% (mean 71 ± 22.5%) respectively. CONCLUSION: Inorganic arsenic levels in the diets were low. Therefore there appears to be a low risk of adverse effects resulting from excess inorganic arsenic intake from these diets. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Dietary exposure to chloropropanols of secondary school students in Hong Kong

This paper reports levels of 3-monochloropropan-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in a wide range of food items and estimates their dietary exposure for secondary school students in Hong Kong. Dietary exposure to chloropropanols was estimated using local food consumption data obtained from secondary school students in 2000 and the concentrations of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP in food samples taken from the local market. The dietary exposure to 3-MCPD for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.063–0.150 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.152–0.300 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. Both estimates fell below the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 µg kg^?1 bw established by the Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and amounted to less than 20% of this safety reference value. The dietary exposure to 1,3-DCP for an average secondary school student consumer was estimated to be 0.003–0.019 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, whilst that for the high consumer was 0.009–0.040 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. The resulting margins of exposures were of low concern for human health. It could be concluded that both the average and high secondary school student consumers were unlikely to experience major toxicological effects of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP.     

Survey of acrylamide levels in Chinese foods

A survey of levels of acrylamide (AA) in 349 food products obtained from the Chinese market was conducted. AA was determined by an liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) of the method in four different matrices ranged from 0.8 to 10 µg kg^?1 and from 4.0 to 25 µg kg^?1, respectively. The results from this survey indicated that AA was present in all samples except drinking water and tea. AA contents in different samples varied greatly according to the raw materials and processing conditions. The highest level of AA was found in potato products, with an average level of 1467 µg kg^?1. Preliminary estimates of AA exposure and risk assessment of AA from foods in the Chinese population were performed using a combination of data obtained in the present survey and 2002 dietary consumption survey carried out in 2002 for the Chinese population. The average dietary exposure of AA was estimated to be 0.38 µg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, which is relatively low compared with the result reported by the Food and Agricultural Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO). Furthermore, the margin of exposure for neurotoxicity, reproductive toxicity, and carcinogenicity of AA was calculated to be 1318, 5250, and 787, respectively.     

Survey on the occurrence of aflatoxins in rice from different provinces of Iran

Aflatoxins were surveyed in 256 rice samples taken from retail markets in different provinces of Iran during October 2007 and July 2008. A methanol/water (80?:?20,?v/v) mixture and an aflatoxin immunoaffinity column (IAC) were used for extraction and clean-up. Mycotoxins were determined using HPLC with fluorescence detection and post-column derivatization using a photo-ionization cell. Levels of contamination ranged 0.0–5.8?ng?g^?1 (mean, 1.4?ng?g^?1) and 0.1–6.3?ng?g^?1 (mean, 1.6?ng?g^?1) for AFB1 and total aflatoxins, respectively. AFB1 was detected in almost all samples. Results showed that 55 samples (21.5%) were contaminated with more than 2?µg?kg^?1 of AFB1, while seven samples (2.7 %) contained more than 4?µg?kg^?1 total aflatoxins. The calculated probable daily intake of AFB1 from rice for Iranians ranged 1.4–5.8?ng AFB1 per kg body weight per day for average consumers and, hence. exceeding the estimated provisional maximum tolerable daily intake.     

Quantification of ethyl carbamate in soy sauce consumed in Korea and estimated daily intakes by age

To estimate the daily intake of ethyl carbamate (EC, a possible human carcinogen) from soy sauce consumed in Korea, 136 soy sauce samples were collected from various regions and analysed by gas chromatography/selected ion mode mass spectrometry (GC/SIM‐MS). The distribution of EC varied significantly among samples, ranging from not detected to 128.9 µg kg^?1, with the highest level in Japanese‐style soy sauce. Based on individual intakes in the Complementary Report on 1998 National Health and Nutrition Survey and EC contents analysed in the present study, the contribution of soy sauce to EC intake was estimated by multiplying the mean concentration of EC by individual soy sauce intake data. Daily intakes of EC kg^?1 body weight by high consumers were particularly high in age groups 1–2 years (78.59 ng), 3–6 years (86.37 ng), 50–64 years (86.24 ng) and ≥ 65 years (76.86 ng). Based on a benchmark dose confidence limit (BMDL) of 0.3 mg EC kg^?1 body weight day^?1, the margin of exposure (MOE) calculated from the daily intake of EC in soy sauce for high consumers ranged from 3488 to 7317, which is of concern. Daily EC intakes are likely to be exceeded in groups who consume other fermented foods as well as alcoholic beverages. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Predicted dietary intake of selenium by the general adult population in Belgium

The total selenium content of about 800 food products purchased in Belgium was determined and combined with food records to determine the nutritional selenium status of Belgian people. The largest selenium concentrations (>1?mg?kg^?1) were found in Brazil nuts and offal, of which the consumption is limited. Usually consumed food groups with the highest selenium concentrations were fish and shellfish (0.2–0.9?mg?kg^?1), eggs, poultry meat, cheese, mushrooms and pasta (approximately 0.2?mg?kg^?1). The mean dietary selenium intake was calculated to be 60?µg?day^?1, which is at the lower end but within the range recommended by the Superior Health Council in Belgium (60–70?µg?day^?1), and adequate according to the 55?µg?day^?1 recommended by the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) of the European Commission. The major sources of selenium intake are meat and meat products (31%), fish and shellfish (20%), pasta and rice (12%), and bread and breakfast cereals (11%).     

Furan in canned sardines and other fish

Thirty-seven different samples of canned sardines and other fish sold in the United Kingdom were analysed for their furan content using a validated automated headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry procedure. All 37 samples contained detectable furan, with an average level of 26 μg kg^?1. The maximum furan content was in canned fish containing tomato sauce, which had an average of 49 μg kg^?1 and in canned fish packed with lemon which had an average of 55 μg kg^?1. All fish in brine or in oil contained less than 20 μg kg^?1 furan. Furan levels recorded in fish packed in extra virgin olive oil were low with an average of 2 μg kg^?1.     

Occurrence and intake of deoxynivalenol in cereal-based products marketed in Korea during 2007–2008

The occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) was investigated in 514 cereal-based products (corn-based, n = 125; barley-based, n = 96; wheat-based, n = 94; rice-based, n = 199) marketed in Korea during 2007?2008, and estimates of DON intake were determined. Samples were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet light (UV) detection after immunoaffinity clean-up. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) were 2.2 and 5.6 µg kg^–1, respectively. Recoveries and repeatability expressed as coefficients of variation (CV) were 82.3–100% and 2.4–15.3% in beer, bread and dried corn. The incidences and mean levels of DON were 56% and 68.9 µg kg^?1 for corn-based products, 49% and 24.1 µg kg^?1 for wheat-based products, 43% and 7.5 µg kg^?1 for barley-based products, and 16% and 3.4 µg kg^?1 for rice-based products, respectively. The estimated daily intake of DON from the consumption of rice-based, wheat-based, barley-based and corn-based products were 0.0038 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0032 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, 0.0015 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1 and 0.0002 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1, respectively. These values represent 0.38%, 0.32%, 0.25% and 0.01% of the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) of 1 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1. These results indicate that rice-based products are major contributors to DON exposure in Korea, even though the current exposure level is unlikely to cause adverse health effects.     

Assessment of the acrylamide intake of the Belgian population and the effect of mitigation strategies

The acrylamide (AA) intake of the Belgian consumer was calculated based on AA monitoring data of the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain (FASFC) and consumption data of the Belgian food consumption survey coordinated by the Scientific Institute for Public Health (3214 participants of 15 years or older). The average AA exposure, calculated probabilistically, was 0.4 µg kg^?1 body weight (bw) day^?1 (P97.5 = 1.6 µg kg^?1 bw day^?1), the main contributors to the average intake being chips (23%), coffee (19%), biscuits (13%), and bread (12%). Additionally, the impact of a number of AA mitigation scenarios was evaluated (German minimization concept, scenarios for mitigation from the literature, signal values), which is an important issue for public health as well as for policy-makers. Specific actions in cooperation with the food industry to reduce the AA content of foods seems to be a more efficient strategy than mere implementation of signal values. Considering that an important share of the AA intake is due to prepared meals, the catering industry as well as consumers need to be better informed on the various possibilities for keeping the AA content of meals as low as possible.