The relation of congitive-dissonance theory to an aspect of psychotherapeutic practice.

"The present paper is designed to link dissonance theory with one practical reality-oriented aspect of the process of psychotherapy with emotionally troubled individuals—namely, the charging of fees." Freud stated that "money matters are treated by civilized people in the same way as sexual matters—with the same inconsistency, prudishness, and hypocrisy. It is… avowed… that in order to accomplish any significant therapeutic work the patient must be charged a fee that is somewhat painful and discomforting." Dissonance theory "would predict that if a person paid nothing for something that he believed was worth nothing he would not experience cognitive dissonance. Rather his cognitive world would be in a state of harmony in this regard. My main purpose has been to stimulate greater clinical interest in the possibilities of employing general psychological theories, developed in the more traditional academic areas of psychology, to shed light upon seemingly complex issues in the field of clinical psychology." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance reduction as constraint satisfaction.

A constraint satisfaction neural network model (the consonance model) simulated data from the two major cognitive dissonance paradigms of insufficient justification and free choice. In several cases, the model fit the human data better than did cognitive dissonance theory. Superior fits were due to the inclusion of constraints that were not part of dissonance theory and to the increased precision inherent to this computational approach. Predictions generated by the model for a free choice between undesirable alternatives were confirmed in a new psychological experiment. The success of the consonance model underscores important, unforeseen similarities between what had been formerly regarded as the rather exotic process of dissonance reduction and a variety of other, more mundane psychological processes. Many of these processes can be understood as the progressive application of constraints supplied by beliefs and attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance as a modifier of chronic smoking behavior: A serendipitous finding.

Results of a study (undertaken as a methodological analog to J. H. Resnick's 1968 investigation) with adult smokers, in which rate of puffing rather than number of cigarettes smoked was manipulated in a controlled setting, are contrary to those predicted: self-paced control Ss fared better than operantly paced experimental Ss and rated cigarettes less favorably at the end of the study. Results are explained in terms of cognitive dissonance theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dissonance theory approach to defensive projection.

It was hypothesized that cognitive dissonance involving the self-concept leads to the use of projection to reduce the dissonance. Ss were given personality tests, and instead of true results received falisified data indicating favorable or unfavorable personality traits—thereby raising or lowering their self-esteem. In the presence of another S, Ss were shown pictures of men and were told this would be an indicator of their latent homosexuality; GSRs were supported to reflect their degree of anxiety. Ss were asked to estimate the reaction of the other S; Ss with high self-esteem tended to attribute a greater degree of responsiveness of the other S to the pictures. The relationship of psychoanalytic and dissonance theory is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Increasing cognitive dissonance by a fait accompli.

Festinger's theory (see 32: 347) states "that a person who is completely forced to behave in a manner he would avoid if possible, experiences no dissonance. On the other hand, a fait accompli—i.e., an event outside of the person's control—might conceivably create dissonance if that same event would have led to the opposite behavior had it been predictable at a prior choice point." An experiment is reported in which a fait accompli does appear to have increased cognitive dissonance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessment of distributed arterial network models

In drinking and drug surveys, peers are perceived as drinking more and using more drugs than the respondent. Particularly in youth studies, this majority fallacy is often interpreted as an indication of peer pressure toward drinking and drug use. However, exaggerating the alcohol and drug behaviours of significant others may be a way of reducing cognitive dissonance. The behaviour of most people deviates from their ideal norms. The ensuing dissonance can be alleviated by introducing the behaviour of others as a third element in the cognitive field. Data from three Scandinavian surveys support the following two predictions based on the theory of cognitive dissonance: (1) The tendency to report that other people drink more than oneself is more marked in restrictive than in permissive communities. (2) On each level of alcohol intake, the tendency to report that other people drink more than oneself is stronger among respondents having negative alcohol attitudes than among respondents with positive attitudes to alcohol. The need to alleviate the cognitive dissonance caused by a discrepancy between actual behaviour and normative standards is thus one of the mechanisms generating the majority fallacy: "I may not be perfect, but other people are still worse". Feeling better than others does not necessarily amount to a pressure to turn bad.     

Arousal properties of dissonance manipulations

Examines whether traditional manipulations of cognitive dissonance are arousing or motivating to the S and reviews the empirical evidence on this issue. Effects of dissonance produced either by decisions or by counterattitudinal behavior are reviewed in 4 topical areas: (a) response competition and verbal performance in task situations, (b) incidental retention in task situations, (c) misattribution of arousal states, and (d) physiological correlates. It is concluded that the evidence is consistent with a broad interpretation of dissonance as an arousal state. (11/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evidence that the production of aversive consequences is not necessary to create cognitive dissonance.

The present authors hypothesized, in contrast to 1 influential revision of cognitive dissonance theory, that the production of aversive consequences is not necessary to create cognitive dissonance and that cognitive dissonance will occur even when aversive consequences are not produced. In Experiment 1, participants drank a pleasant- or unpleasant-tasting beverage and were given high or low choice to write a sentence that said they liked the beverage. Participants threw the paper away once they had written the sentence and then rated how much they liked the beverage. In support of the hypothesis, unpleasant-tasting beverage/ high-choice participants liked the beverage more than unpleasant-tasting beverage/low-choice participants. A 2nd experiment replicated this effect, using a different counterattitudinal action and different choice manipulation. By demonstrating that the manipulation of dissonance produced increased physiological arousal, a 3rd experiment suggested that self-perception theory could not alternatively explain the results of Experiments 1 and 2. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination or public spectacle?

Examines various interpretations of cognitive dissonance. A review of the conditions which have reliably produced dissonance indicates that the phenomenon will occur whenever an individual can be held intentionally responsible for his behaviors and is concerned with the attributions others make about him. A social-psychologically based theory of impression management is offered to account for the results of dissonance studies. According to the theory, an individual learns that he must appear consistent in order to maintain his credibility as a social communicator. Additionally, he is constrained by normative considerations. Dissonance reduction will only be observed when a person believes that an outside o imputes intentionality to both of 2 contradictory statements or actions, and the 2nd action is believed to be counternormative or harmful in nature. The theory integrates the various viewpoints of L. Festinger, D. Bem, V. Allen, and M. Rosenberg, is supported by the existing dissonance literature, is rooted in socialization processes, and offers an alternative to the traditional intrapsychic explanations of dissonance. (50 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Communicator credibility and communication discrepancy as determinants of opinion change.

The theory of cognitive dissonance suggests that opinion change is a function of a specific complex interaction between the credibility of the communicator and the discrepancy of the communication from the initial attitude of the recipient. In a laboratory experiment, Ss who read a communication that was attributed to a highly credible source showed greater opinion change when the opinion of the source was presented as being increasingly discrepant from their own. In sharp contrast to this was the behavior of Ss who were exposed to the same communication—attributed to a source having only moderate credibility. In this condition, increasing the discrepancy increased the degree of opinion change only to a point; as discrepancy became more extreme, however, the degree of opinion change decreased. The results support predictions from the theory and suggest a reconciliation of previously contradictory findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the motivational nature of cognitive dissonance: Dissonance as psychological discomfort.

Most empirical research investigating the motivational properties of cognitive dissonance has focused on the arousal component of dissonance rather than on the psychological component explicitly delineated by L. Festinger (1957). In 2 induced-compliance experiments involving a total of 112 undergraduates, a self-report measure of affect was used to demonstrate that dissonance was experienced as psychological discomfort and that this psychological discomfort was alleviated on implementation of a dissonance-reduction strategy, attitude change. Exp 1 yielded supporting evidence for both of these propositions. Exp 2 replicated the 1st experiment and ruled out a self-perception-based alternative explanation for the dissonance-reduction findings in Exp 1. Results support Festinger's conceptualization of cognitive dissonance as a fundamentally motivational state. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implications of payment of fees for psychotherapy.

Considers the question of how the payment of fees by clients for psychotherapy and related psychological services influences therapeutic outcomes. Psychoanalytic theory and cognitive dissonance theory suggest that clients who pay for psychotherapy will benefit more than those who pay nothing. This question and related issues are discussed with reference to observations and experimental studies that have explored how fees influence psychotherapy. Presently, sufficient evidence does not exist either to support or refute most of the hypotheses that have been generated, including the one that clients who pay a fee benefit more than those who pay nothing. Explanations for this void in the research literature and suggestions for expanding the understanding of this domain are provided. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generation of random series in two-person strictly competitive games.

A general conclusion, widely and uniformly supported by a variety of experiments, is that humans are unable to produce a random series of discrete responses, even when instructed to do so. Several arguments are advanced to show that the experimental evidence in support of this claim is plagued with logical and methodological difficulties. Using a new research paradigm, this article reports experimental results showing that people can generate binary sequences that satisfy standard tests of randomness more successfully when they participate in 2-person strictly competitive games inducing them to conceal their choices and protect themselves from their own frailty to maximize gain. The results are discussed within the framework of existing theories of cognitive biases in random-sequence generation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivational basis of dissonance: The singular role of behavioral consequences.

This article provides the first empirical test of the idea that discrepancy is not needed in order to arouse cognitive dissonance. Dissonance was aroused when Ss felt responsible for some aversive consequence, regardless of whether their behavior was consistent (writing a proattitudinal essay) or inconsistent (a counterattitudinal essay) with beliefs. The data demonstrate that in both situations, dissonance is aroused. This result, based on the dissonance motivation model of J. Cooper and R. H. Fazio (1984), strongly suggests that the motivational basis for dissonance is the felt responsibility for aversive consequences. The theoretical implications of this outlook are explored, including a discussion of the many ways that it expands the applicability of dissonance theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reframing paradoxical psychotherapy.

Discusses the conceptual confusion regarding paradoxical psychotherapy (PPT) and suggests an explanation of the change process inherent in the use of paradoxical techniques in terms of cognitive dissonance (CD). PPT requires a cognitive set that is distinct from that required for more conventional approaches. To many, the approach seems counterintuitive. Ethical issues such as the use of deception arise. It is argued that this counterintuitive cognitive set seems to be more a reflection of lack of conceptual clarity of the approach rather than anything inherent in the methods themselves. Empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of PPT techniques is primarily anecdotal and equivocal, due in part to the lack of a coherent theory to guide research. It is suggested that CD theory fills this conceptual void and brings paradoxical techniques within the same arena as other therapeutic techniques. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships among dissonance reducing responses.

This experiment compares the use which is made of available dissonance reducing responses by Ss who have received 3 types of experimental treatments. Ss who were forced to use 2 dissonance reducing responses made less use of 3 other available means of reducing dissonance than did Ss who were forced to use only 1. The latter Ss, in turn, made less use of other available responses than did those who were not forced to use any. These and other findings suggest that dissonance reducing responses combine additively rather than disjunctively. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sorting through chickens and eggs: A longitudinal examination of the associations between attitudes, norms, and sexual risk behavior.

Objective: Health behavior theories posit that health-relevant attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral skills drive subsequent actions people take to protect themselves from health threats. Within the realm of HIV-related sexual risk behavior, much of the research in support of this notion is cross-sectional, rather than longitudinal, particularly in studies of gay and bisexual men. Other psychological theories (e.g., self-perception or cognitive dissonance theories) suggest that the opposite could be true—that health-relevant attitudes and beliefs might change as a function of previous risk or precautionary behavior. Appreciating the complex nature of these associations is essential for modifying theory and developing appropriate interventions. Design: Using longitudinal data from gay and bisexual men (n = 1465), we used structural equation modeling to examine three possibilities—that perceived norms and attitudes about sexual risk would be (a) related to unprotected anal intercourse cross-sectionally, (b) related to unprotected anal intercourse at a subsequent time point, and/or (c) predicted from previous instances of unprotected anal intercourse. Results: Safe-sex norms and attitudes were related to unprotected anal intercourse cross-sectionally, but did not predict unprotected sex longitudinally. Rather, perceived norms and attitudes changed as a function of previous risk behavior. Conclusions: These results raise the possibility that modified theoretical models might be necessary to adequately describe sexual risk behavior among gay and bisexual men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unwanted asymmetrical transfer effects with balanced experimental designs.

In comparing 2 conditions using a simple Group I AB, Group II BA design, transfer effects may be: (1) 2-way asymmetrical—after A, B is better; after B, A is worse. This appears as an interaction between conditions and order, and can be due to an initial difference between Groups I and II. (2) 1-way—A remains unchanged; after A, B is better (or worse). This may show in Tukey's mean square for nonaddivity. Examples are given of both kinds. Asymmetrical transfer generally reduces, but can exaggerate, the difference between 2 conditions. With this simple balanced experimental design, a between-group analysis of the conditions performed 1st can be made which is uncontaminated by transfer effects, as well as a within-group analysis of 1st and 2nd conditions combined. Only if the individual differences are too large should the E resort with caution to the latter. (32 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biochemical studies and bone tissue biopsy in primary hyperparathyroidism

Insomnia in 11 general hospital in-patients was treated by a placebo. The conditions of administration of the placebo were experimentally varied, and a hypothesis derived from Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory was tested. Consistent with this hypothesis, it was found that patients who were required to make meaningful decisions concerning their treatment derived significantly greater hypnotic (therapeutic) value from it than did patients whose treatment was simply administered to them and who were not required to make such decisions. The power of cognitive dissonance theory to explain the placebo effect, and the therapeutic potential of this approach are discussed.     

Significance of all-or-none learning.

The essential characteristic of all-or-none data is that errors are recurrent events. Theoretical models having this property are derived from cognitive theory, Hullian theory, and stimulus-sampling theory. In addition, continuous-learning models, including the linear model and Luce's beta model, are shown to have all-or-none special cases. 3 experimental methods, the substitution method, the miniature experiment, and detailed distributional analysis of simple learning, have yielded information on conditions that give all-or-none data. Multiple-stage models, built of more than 1 all-or-none process, can be used to dissect a complex learning process into elementary parts. (46 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)