Should the natural learning approach replace spelling instruction?

Incidental and informal methods of learning to spell should replace more traditional and direct instructional procedures, according to advocates of the natural learning approach. This proposition is based on 2 assumptions: (a) Spelling competence can be acquired without instruction and (b) reading and writing are the primary vehicles for learning to spell. There is only partial support for these assumptions. First, very young children who receive little or no spelling instruction do as well as their counterparts in more traditional spelling programs, but the continued effects of no instruction beyond first grade are unknown. Second, reading and writing contribute to spelling development, but their overall impact is relatively modest. Consequently, there is little support for replacing traditional spelling instruction with the natural learning approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does incorrect guessing impair fact learning?

Taking a test has been shown to produce enhanced retention of the retrieved information. On tests, however, students often encounter questions the answers for which they are unsure. Should they guess anyway, even if they are likely to answer incorrectly? Or are errors engrained, impairing subsequent learning of the correct answer? We sought to answer this question in 3 experiments. In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects read 80 obscure facts (e.g., “Where is Disko Island? Greenland”) and then took a cued recall test. When a subject reported being unable to answer a question, on a randomly chosen half of those questions the computer program insisted upon a guess. Corrective feedback was provided either immediately (Experiment 1) or after a delay (Experiment 2). Forced guessing did not affect subjects' performance on a final test given 1 day later. We extended the investigation to more complex material in Experiment 3. Subjects saw a question (e.g., “Why do ice cubes often pop as they melt in your drink?”) and its answer, but for half of the questions, subjects did not see the answer until they first provided a plausible explanation. On a test administered either on the same day or 1 week later, recall performance was again unaffected by a prior wrong guess. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning?

Testing previously studied information enhances long-term memory, particularly when the information is successfully retrieved from memory. The authors examined the effect of unsuccessful retrieval attempts on learning. Participants in 5 experiments read an essay about vision. In the test condition, they were asked about embedded concepts before reading the passage; in the extended study condition, they were given a longer time to read the passage. To distinguish the effects of testing from attention direction, the authors emphasized the tested concepts in both conditions, using italics or bolded keywords or, in Experiment 5, by presenting the questions but not asking participants to answer them before reading the passage. Posttest performance was better in the test condition than in the extended study condition in all experiments—a pretesting effect—even though only items that were not successfully retrieved on the pretest were analyzed. The testing effect appears to be attributable, in part, to the role unsuccessful tests play in enhancing future learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review.

A meta-analytic review of empirical studies that have investigated incubation effects on problem solving is reported. Although some researchers have reported increased solution rates after an incubation period (i.e., a period of time in which a problem is set aside prior to further attempts to solve), others have failed to find effects. The analysis examined the contributions of moderators such as problem type, presence of solution-relevant or misleading cues, and lengths of preparation and incubation periods to incubation effect sizes. The authors identified a positive incubation effect, with divergent thinking tasks benefiting more than linguistic and visual insight tasks from incubation. Longer preparation periods gave a greater incubation effect, whereas filling an incubation period with high cognitive demand tasks gave a smaller incubation effect. Surprisingly, low cognitive demand tasks yielded a stronger incubation effect than did rest during an incubation period when solving linguistic insight problems. The existence of multiple types of incubation effect provides evidence for differential invocation of knowledge-based vs. strategic solution processes across different classes of problem, and it suggests that the conditions under which incubation can be used as a practical technique for enhancing problem solving must be designed with care. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does nitrous oxide antagonize isoflurane-induced suppression of learning?

BACKGROUND: A greater MAC fraction of nitrous oxide than isoflurane is required to prevent response to verbal commands and suppress the capacity to learn. Speculating that this difference between these agents may be caused by nitrous oxide's capacity to increase sympathetic activity, we tested the hypothesis that nitrous oxide may antagonize the suppression of learning found with isoflurane. METHODS: We administered a combination of isoflurane and nitrous oxide at three subanesthetic test concentrations (0.43, 0.56, and 0.68 MAC) to 24 healthy male volunteers. Assuming additivity of the anesthetics, the first test concentration was selected to suppress learning of new information by 50% (ED50 for suppression of learning); the second concentration, to suppress the ability to respond appropriately to verbal command by 50% (MAC-awake); and the third, to provide 1.4 times MAC-awake. Three tests of learning were applied. At each test concentration, we provided 7 answers to "trivial pursuit"-type questions, resulting in a set of 21 answered questions for each volunteer; an additional 7 unanswered questions served as controls. At the highest test concentration, each volunteer also heard two examples from each of two categories (4 words) repeated 30 times (the category-example task), and a message instructing them to touch either their nose or their ear during a specified interval in the postanesthetic interview (the behavior task). RESULTS: The MAC-awake value for the combination of isoflurane and nitrous oxide was 118 +/- 4% of the expected value (i.e., the two anesthetics were antagonistic for this effect). Consistent with antagonism, the anesthetic concentration predicted to suppress learning by 50% permitted significantly more learning, and the ED50 was 105 +/- 2% of that predicted. Neither the category task nor the behavior task demonstrated evidence of learning at 1.4 times MAC-awake. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with an antagonism between nitrous oxide and isoflurane; however, the degree of antagonism is small.     

Does extrinsic goal framing enhance extrinsic goal-oriented individuals' learning and performance? An experimental test of the match perspective versus self-determination theory.

Previous work within self-determination theory has shown that experimentally framing a learning activity in terms of extrinsic rather than intrinsic goals results in poorer conceptual learning and performance, presumably because extrinsic goal framing detracts attention from the learning activity and is less directly satisfying of basic psychological needs. According to the match perspective, experimental extrinsic, compared to intrinsic, goal framing should enhance learning and performance for learners who personally hold a stronger extrinsic than intrinsic goal orientation, as these learners' personally held goals match with the situationally induced goals. An experimental field study among 5th-6th grade children shows that extrinsic goal framing resulted in poorer autonomous motivation, conceptual (but not rote) learning, and persistence compared to intrinsic goal framing, irrespective of participants' personal intrinsic versus extrinsic goal orientations and their spontaneous perception of the learning activity as serving an intrinsic or an extrinsic goal. The authors conclude that teachers can best promote intrinsic goals, even when facing students who personally hold a stronger extrinsic than intrinsic goal orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does language matter in multimedia learning? Personalization principle revisited.

This study examines one of the design principles of multimedia learning in a context dissimilar to the one in which it was originally tested. Personalization principle states that the amount of learning increases when the style of language is informal and conversational. In an attempt to uncover the relationship between learning and language styles with varying degrees of personalization and formality, 89 college students were tested with computerized instructional content composed in 1 of the 3 styles: personalized informal, personalized formal, and neutral–formal. The materials consisted of a short text on stellar death with illustrative pictures and animation. The visuals and text were identical for all groups except for additional expressions for personalization and minimal structural changes to evoke a conversational style in 2 of the testing conditions. After reading in 1 of the 3 conditions, the participants were asked retention and transfer questions. The participants also rated the computer program for interest, difficulty of the material, and their motivation for its style. The findings were generally consistent with the predictions of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning except for the effect size for retention. Implications for multimedia design guidelines in varied educational and linguistic contexts are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is dual-task slowing instruction dependent?

When 2 tasks must be performed concurrently, each requiring a choice of response, dual-task slowing is typically found. However, E. H. Schumacher et al. (1997) reported that dual-task slowing can be eliminated when equal priority is assigned to each task. Experiment 1 largely confirmed this with the same tasks as Schumacher et al. (tasks using stimulus–response combinations of visual–manual and auditory–vocal pairings). Experiment 2 retained the equal-priority instructions but switched the task pairings (to visual–vocal and auditory–manual); substantial dual-task slowing occurred. Experiment 3 used the same two response sets but only a single stimulus; slowing was again obtained despite equal priority instructions. Equalizing task priority was not sufficient to eliminate interference; relatively unusual cases in which dual-task interference is eliminated seem to depend on task-specific features. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Couple relationship education at home: Does skill training enhance relationship assessment and feedback?

To evaluate the effective components of couple relationship education, 59 newlywed couples were randomly assigned to one of two couple relationship programs (CRE): (1) RELATE, which involved receiving feedback on their relationship based on the on-line RELATE assessment; or (2) RELATE + Couple CARE, which was RELATE plus completing the 6 unit Couple CARE relationship skill training program. Relative to RELATE, RELATE + Couple CARE produced more improvement in couple communication, and high relationship satisfaction across the next 12 months in women. Men sustained high and similar relationship satisfaction in either condition. Skill training CRE has additional benefits for couples beyond assessment and feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does a new learning environment come up to students' expectations? A longitudinal study.

School transitions and educational innovations confront students with changes in their learning environment. Though expectations are known to influence perceptions and motivation, which, in turn, influence the effectiveness of any situation, students' expectations for a new learning environment have received little attention. This longitudinal survey, conducted with 1,335 high school students (average age, 15 years), studied students' expectations and subsequent perceptions of 5 characteristics of a new environment (fascinating content, productive learning, student autonomy, interaction, and clarity of goals) and the students' (prospective) dissatisfaction. Results showed that expectations were positively related to later perceptions. Also, high prospective dissatisfaction was related to higher actual dissatisfaction with the environment later on. Investigating expectations and prospective dissatisfaction in relation to student characteristics (i.e., motivational orientations; conceptions of learning; strategies for regulation, information processing, and affective processing) show that motivational problems and fear of failure were risk factors for educational innovations. Furthermore, students' disappointment with the new environment was related to undesirable changes in student characteristics, such as increased fear of failure. The findings stress the importance of preparing students for curricular changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does tailoring on additional theoretical constructs enhance the efficacy of a print-based physical activity promotion intervention?

Objective: To enhance a previously efficacious individually tailored physical activity (PA) promotion intervention by adding theoretical constructs to the tailored feedback. Design: We randomly assigned 248 healthy, underactive (moderate to vigorous physical activity [MVPA] min/week enhanced print). Main Outcome Measure: The 7-day physical activity recall administered at baseline, Month 6, and Month 12, with outcomes operationalized as percentage achieving 150 min/week of MVPA. Results: When controlling for covariates, there was a nonsignificant trend in favor of the enhanced print condition reflecting 46% and 50% greater odds of achieving 150 min/week of MVPA at Month 6 and Month 12, respectively. Conclusion: Enhanced tailoring based on additional theoretical constructs may result in marginal improvements in physical activity outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does linguistic input play the same role in language learning for children with and without early brain injury?

Children with unilateral pre- or perinatal brain injury (BI) show remarkable plasticity for language learning. Previous work highlights the important role that lesion characteristics play in explaining individual variation in plasticity in the language development of children with BI. The current study examines whether the linguistic input that children with BI receive from their caregivers also contributes to this early plasticity, and whether linguistic input plays a similar role in children with BI as it does in typically developing (TD) children. Growth in vocabulary and syntactic production is modeled for 80 children (53 TD, 27 BI) between 14 and 46 months. Findings indicate that caregiver input is an equally potent predictor of vocabulary growth in children with BI and in TD children. In contrast, input is a more potent predictor of syntactic growth for children with BI than for TD children. Controlling for input, lesion characteristics (lesion size, type, seizure history) also affect the language trajectories of children with BI. Thus, findings illustrate how both variability in the environment (linguistic input) and variability in the organism (lesion characteristics) work together to contribute to plasticity in language learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does the heart learn?

Experimental evidence indicates that both forms of EKG cycle and heart rate may be conditioned with the classical paradigm. Latency of the heart rate CR is less for a shorter CS-UCS interval. Conditioned responses of greater magnitude as well as increased resistance to extinction are reported when the UCS irregularly follows the CS. The question of whether the heart really learns or if the data could be explained on the basis of alternative mechanisms, such as the respiratory or skeletal systems, is discussed. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4CG52S. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When learning is just a click away: Does simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages?

In 2 experiments, students received 2 presentations of a narrated animation that explained how lightning forms followed by retention and transfer tests. In Experiment 1, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation before a second presentation of the same material at normal speed (part–whole presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations in the reverse order (whole–part presentation). In Experiment 2, learners who were allowed to exercise control over the pace of the narrated animation across 2 presentations (part–part presentation) performed better on transfer but not retention tests compared with learners who received the same 2 presentations at normal speed without any learner control (whole–whole presentation). These results are consistent with cognitive load theory and a 2-stage theory of mental model construction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can rats acquire an olfactory learning set?

Experimental rats were trained on multiple 2-odor discrimination tasks, whereas controls were given repeated sessions on Task 1 and then were tested on a novel 2-odor task. Experimental rats showed strong positive transfer across problems and approached errorless or near-errorless learning. Control rats maintained near-perfect performance on Task 1 but performed at chance on initial trials when tested with novel odors. Thus, the near-errorless terminal performance of experimental rats was a function their having been trained on multiple problems and was not simply the result of eliminating "disruptive response tendencies' (I. C. Reid & R. G. M. Morris, 1992). Results support the view that when rats are trained on a series of 2-odor discrimination tasks, they acquire a strategy or rule that allows them to solve new problems with few or no errors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does smoking amortize negative affect?

Comments on the article by A. C. Parrott (see record 1999-11644-002) regarding the link between cigarette smoking and stress. It is argued that, owing to inferential constraints that arise from self-selection in both smoking initiation and maintenance, the notion that smoking increases stress is only one of an array of possible explanations for the observed patterns of stress–smoking relations. The authors highlight this indeterminance with an illustrative example of 1 alternative concept: the idea that smoking redistributes or amortizes stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does oral experience terminate ingestion?

Using data from studies of ingestive behavior in developing rat pups we demonstrate how oral experience can contribute to the termination of ingestion. In rat pups, repeated oral stimulation with sweet solutions causes a decline in oral responsiveness. The diminished responsiveness is specific to the flavor of the stimulus experienced orally and can persist for several hours. We suggest that this experience-based decrement in responsiveness is best considered "oral habituation" and that oral habituation largely accounts for the onset of satiety. Post-ingestive feedback signals may have their influence through the oral habituation process or act in the context of oral habituation. Oral habituation is also shown to depend on the pattern of stimulus presentation, a phenomenon that adds considerable complexity to assessing the contributions of oral experience to satiety. The concept of oral habituation may be useful in understanding the immediate control of ingestion and the moment-to-moment expression of ingestive behavior in adult animals.     

Does the subdural space exist?

A potential space between the dura mater and the arachnoides is thought to exist, occupied by a serous fluid and called the subdural space. Recent studies may change this classical concept, however. The dura-arachnoid complex from the epidural to the arachnoid space is formed by morphologically distinct layers: the dura mater, the subdural compartment and the arachnoid mater, which are made up of different cell types. The dura mater consists of greater and lesser laminae formed mainly of collagen fibers aligned differently. The subdural compartment is formed by a number of so-called "neurothelial cells", which are in close contact with the inner dural layers. These cells are flat and have long interlaced branches. The arachnoides are made of cells grouped in three different layers. The outer layer is the "barrier arachnoid layer". Located just inside the anterior cell plane, this layer is made of less flattened cells that form an epithelial-type tissue, with complex cell-cell junctures surrounded by collagen fibers. The middle layer is the reticular arachnoid, composed of irregularly interlaced cells alternating with collagen fibers and intercellular gaps of varying sizes. The innermost layer, the trabecular arachnoid, is in direct contact with the subarachnoid space. The cells of this layer form strands that contribute to the weblike pattern found in the subarachnoid space. Recently, special techniques for fixing and preparing samples, preserving in situ the anatomical relations between the arachnoides and the dura mater, have allowed us to examine the normal configuration of the subdural space. All samples examined revealed the presence of a cellular plane between the dura mater and the arachnoides, with no evidence of the classically described space. The zone of least resistance in the dura-arachnoid complex was the subdural compartment, which could be torn mainly along intercellular spaces, though cell rupture was also observed, affecting the cytoplasmic membranes of adjacent cells. The subdural space is opened by tearing the subdural compartment between neurothelial cells alongside the collagen fibers of the dura mater. Such a tear can be caused mechanically by injecting air or contrast media, which exert pressure on a laminar structure that tends to separate because it is weaker than neighboring ones.     

Which attention is needed for implicit sequence learning?

The role of attention in implicit sequence teaming was investigated in 3 experiments in which participants were presented with a serial reaction time (SRT) task under single- or dual-task conditions. Unlike previous studies using this paradigm, these experiments included only probabilistic sequences of locations and arranged a counting task performed on the same stimulus on which the SRT task was being carried out. Another sequential contingency was also arranged between the dimension to be counted and the location of the next stimulus. Results indicate that the division of attention barely affected teaming but that selective attention to the predictive dimensions was necessary to learn about the relation between these dimensions and the predicted one. These results are consistent with a theory of implicit sequence teaming that considers this teaming as the result of an automatic associative process running independently of attentional load, but that would associate only those events that are held simultaneously in working memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How does religiosity enhance well-being? The role of perceived control.

Religiousness and spirituality (R/S) are consistently linked with positive indicators of well-being, but the mechanisms behind these associations remain largely unknown. We hypothesize that an individual's level of perceived control (PC) acts as a mediator of this relationship and that this effect is stronger in older adults. Participants were 529 adults from the Notre Dame Study of Health and Well-Being (aged 31–88). Regression analyses tested both mediating and moderating functions of PC for three different R/S components (religious practices, daily spiritual experiences, and religious/spiritual coping); composite variables were used for PC and subjective well-being (SWB) in all analyses. These effects were tested using the full sample, as well as separately by age group (early midlife, aged 31–49; late midlife, aged 50–59; and later life, aged 60 and over), in order to discover any age differences that may exist. Results revealed differences by both R/S dimension and age group: PC partially mediated the religious practices-SWB relationship in the full sample and in the later life group; the effects of religious/spiritual coping and spiritual experiences on SWB were partially mediated by PC in the full sample, the late midlife group, and the later life group; and none of the R/S-SWB relationships were mediated in the early midlife group. Moderating effects were indicated by significant interactions between PC and spiritual experiences in the full sample, PC and religious coping in the full sample, and PC and religious practices in the later life group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)