The non-destructive and nano-microstructural characterization of thermal-barrier coatings

The durability of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) plays an important role in the service reliability and maintainability of hot-section components in advanced turbine engines for aerospace and utility applications. Photostimulated luminescence spectroscopy (PSLS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are being concurrently developed as complimentary nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques for quality control and liferemain assessment of TBCs. This paper discusses recent achievements in understanding the residual stress, phase constituents, and electrochemical resistance (or capacitance) of TBC constituents—with an emphasis on the thermally grown oxide. Results from NDE by PSLS and EIS are correlated to the nano- and microstructural development of TBCs. Authors’ Note: More information on the authors’ research and education activities can be obtained from mmae.ucf.edu/∼ysohn and me.udel.edu/karlsson. For more information, contact Y.H. Sohn, University of Central Florida, Advanced Materials Processing and Analysis Center (AMPAC) and Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, Orlando, FL 32816-2455, USA; (407) 882-1181; fax (407) 882-1462; e-mail ysohn@mail.ucf.edu, and A.M. Karlsson, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716-3140; (302) 831-6437; fax (302) 831-3619; e-mail karlsson@mde.udel.edu.     

热障涂层无损检测技术研究进展

为提高发动机的涡轮前温度和热端部件服役寿命,热障涂层（TBCs）被广泛应用于燃气涡轮发动机。热障涂层具有多相、多界面和非均质特性,且其服役工况恶劣复杂。寻找一种可以表征涂层显微组织、缺陷、热物性、应力等反映涂层质量和剩余寿命的无损检测方法,对发动机的热端部件安全性和可靠性至关重要。文中综述了超声检测技术（UT）、声发射技术（AE）、红外热成像技术（IRT）、阻抗谱技术（IS）和光激发荧光压电光谱技术（PLPS）的原理以及其在热障涂层无损检测中的研究应用,并详细介绍了太赫兹时域光谱（THz-TDS）技术及其在热障涂层中的应用。最后总结了上述无损检测方法的检测能力,并对热障涂层无损检测方法进行展望。     

Thermal barrier coatings for industrial gas turbine applications: An industrial note

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been used in high-thrust aircraft engines for many years to pro-vide thermal protection and increase engine efficiencies. TBC life requirements for aircraft engines are typically less than those required for industrial gas turbines. This paper describes current and future ap-plications of TBCs in industrial gas turbine engines. Early testing and applications of TBCs are reviewed. Areas of concern from the engine designer’s and materials engineer’s perspective are identified and evaluated. This paper focuses on the key factors that are expected to influence utilization of TBCs in ad-vanced industrial gas turbine engines. It is anticipated that reliable, durable, and highly effective coating systems will be produced that will ultimately improve engine efficiency and performance.     

TBC experience in land- based gas turbines

This paper summarizes prior and on-going machine evaluations of thermal barrier coatings (TBC) for power generation, that is large industrial gas turbine applications. Rainbow testing of TBCs on turbine nozzles, shrouds, and buckets are described along with a test of combustor liners. General Electric Power Generation has conducted more than IS machine tests on TBC turbine nozzles with various coatings. TBC performance has been quite good, and additional testing, including TBCs on shrouds and buckets, is continuing. Included is a brief comparison of TBC requirements for power generation and aircraft turbines.     

燃气轮机在海洋环境下的热腐蚀与防护技术研究进展

针对海洋环境下舰船燃气轮机的热腐蚀现状,从热腐蚀的机理研究着手,基于不同阶段提出的热腐蚀模型理论,分析了高温和低温两种热腐蚀类型的发生过程和表现特征,指出热腐蚀实质上是以Na2SO4为主导的熔盐沉积共晶物与金属基体发生反应而导致金属材料加速氧化的过程。在此基础上,详细介绍了三种涂层防护技术—扩散涂层、覆盖涂层和热障涂层,并根据这三种涂层的发展阶段和功能特性,分析了其在制备工艺、作用机理和应用领域上表现出的差异性,重点强调了热障涂层(TBCs)在当前的发展境况。结合世界各国研究者开展的代表性工作,全面综述了国内外在舰船燃机热腐蚀防护领域的研究进展,重点描述了以硫酸盐为主的腐蚀介质中,金属材料的热腐蚀表现特征,并展示了数值模拟、热力学模拟等方法在热腐蚀研究上的应用案例。最后,对舰船燃气轮机涂层防护技术的发展方向进行了展望,提出发展新一代环障涂层(EBCs)是提高燃气轮机综合防护能力的有效技术手段。     

Higher Temperature Thermal Barrier Coatings with the Combined Use of Yttrium Aluminum Garnet and the Solution Precursor Plasma Spray Process

Gas-turbine engines are widely used in transportation, energy and defense industries. The increasing demand for more efficient gas turbines requires higher turbine operating temperatures. For more than 40 years, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) has been the dominant thermal barrier coating (TBC) due to its outstanding material properties. However, the practical use of YSZ-based TBCs is limited to approximately 1200 °C. Developing new, higher temperature TBCs has proven challenging to satisfy the multiple property requirements of a durable TBC. In this study, an advanced TBC has been developed by using the solution precursor plasma spray (SPPS) process that generates unique engineered microstructures with the higher temperature yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) to produce a TBC that can meet and exceed the major performance standards of state-of-the-art air plasma sprayed YSZ, including: phase stability, sintering resistance, CMAS resistance, thermal cycle durability, thermal conductivity and erosion resistance. The temperature improvement for hot section gas turbine materials (superalloys & TBCs) has been at the rate of about 50 °C per decade over the last 50 years. In contrast, SPPS YAG TBCs offer the near-term potential of a > 200 °C improvement in temperature capability.     

Practical Aspects of Suspension Plasma Spray for Thermal Barrier Coatings on Potential Gas Turbine Components

Suspension plasma spray (SPS) process has attracted extensive efforts and interests to produce fine-structured and functional coatings. In particular, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) applied by SPS process gain increasing interest due to its potential for superior thermal protection of gas turbine hot sections as compared to conventional TBCs. Unique columnar architectures and nano- and submicrometric grains in the SPS-TBC demonstrated some advantages of thermal shock durability, low thermal conductivity, erosion resistance and strain-tolerant microstructure. This work aimed to look into some practical aspects of SPS processing for TBC applications before it becomes a reliable industry method. The spray capability and applicability of SPS process to achieve uniformity thickness and microstructure on curved substrates were emphasized in designed spray trials to simulate the coating fabrication onto industrial turbine parts with complex configurations. The performances of the SPS-TBCs were tested in erosion, falling ballistic impact and indentational loading tests as to evaluate SPS-TBC performances in simulated turbine service conditions. Finally, a turbine blade was coated and sectioned to verify SPS sprayability in multiple critical sections. The SPS trials and test results demonstrated that SPS process is promising for innovative TBCs, but some challenges need to be addressed and resolved before it becomes an economic and capable industrial process, especially for complex turbine components.     

Development of refractory silicate-yttria-stabilized zirconia dual-layer thermal barrier coatings

Development of advanced thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is the most promising approach for increasing the efficiency and performance of gas turbine engines by enhancing the temperature capability of hot section metallic components. Spallation of the yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) top coat, induced by the oxidation of the bond coat coupled with the thermal expansion mismatch strain, is considered to be the ultimate failure mode for current state-of-the-art TBCs. Enhanced oxidation resistance of TBCs can be achieved by reducing the oxygen conductance of TBCs below that of thermally grown oxide (TGO) alumina scale. One approach is incorporating an oxygen barrier having an oxygen conductance lower than that of alumina scale. Mullite, rare earth silicates, and glass ceramics have been selected as potential candidates for the oxygen barrier. This paper presents the results of cyclic oxidation studies of oxygen barrier/YSZ dual-layer TBCs.     

Thermal barrier coatings issues in advanced land-based gas turbines

The Department of Energy’s Advanced Turbine Systems (ATS) program is aimed at fostering the devel-opment of a new generation of land-based gas turbine systems with overall efficiencies significantly be-yond those of current state-of-the-art machines, as well as greatly increased times between inspection and refurbishment, improved environmental impact, and decreased cost. The proposed duty cycle of ATS ma-chines will emphasize different criteria in the selection of materials for the critical components. In par-ticular, thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) will be an essential feature of the hot gas path components in these machines. The goals of the ATS will require significant improvements in TBC technology, since these turbines will be totally reliant on TBCs, which will be required to function on critical components such as the first-stage vanes and blades for times considerably longer than those experienced in current applications. Important issues include the mechanical and chemical stability of the ceramic layer and the metallic bond coat, the thermal expansion characteristics and compliance of the ceramic layer, and the thermal conductivity across the thickness of the ceramic layer.     

Editorial

Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs) in current gas turbine engines routinely deliver metal tempera-ture reductions of 50 to 80°C under normal conditions and as much as 140°C temperature reduc-tions in hot spots (Ref 1). This temperature reduction can be used to lower metal component tem-peratures under constant operating conditions to achieve longer life, or to increase the performance of the engine through higher operating temperatures while maintaining constant life of the component, as indicated by the horizontal arrows in Fig. 1. A middle road of longer life and increased engine performance/efficiency is also possible. The choice of how to use the thermal benefits derived from TBCs is critical, especially if the intent is to follow the high economic pay-off path of increasing the operating temperatures to increase engine efficiency. In this case, large increases in operating temperature and engine efficiency are possible with the insulating capabil-ity of TBCs. The problem is that if the temperatures are increased to take full advantage of the TBC insulating ability, and a large frac-tion of the coating spalls, the remaining bare metallic component would be subjected to high temperatures and unacceptably rapid deg-radation (Fig. 1). Obviously, the risk of coating failure must be balanced against the benefit of coating use.     

Thermal barrier coating experience in gas turbine engines at Pratt & Whitney

Pratt & Whitney has accumulated more than three decades of experience with thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). These coatings were originally developed to reduce surface temperatures of combustors of JT8D gas turbine engines to increase the thermal fatigue life of the components. Continual improvements in de-sign, processing, and properties of TBCs have extended their applications to other turbine components, such as vanes, vane platforms, and blades, with attendant increases in performance and component du-rability. Plasma-spray-based generation I (Gen I) combustor TBCs with 7 wt % yttria partially stabilized zirconia deposited by air plasma spray (APS) on an APS NiCoCrAlY bond coat continues to perform ex-tremely well in all product line engines. Durability of this TBC has been further improved in Gen II TBCs for vanes by incorporating low-pressure chamber plasma-sprayed NiCoCrAl Y as a bond coat. The modi-fication has improved TBC durability by a factor of 2.5 and altered the failure mode from a “black fail-ure” within the bond coat to a “white failure” within the ceramic. Further improvements have been accomplished by instituting a more strain-tolerant ceramic top layer with electron beam/physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) processing. This Gen III TBC has demonstrated exceptional performance on rotating airfoils in high-thrust-rated engines, improving blade durability by three times through elimination of blade creep, fracture, and rumpling of metallic coatings used for oxi-dation protection of the airfoil surfaces. A TBC durability model for plasma-sprayed as well as EB-PVD systems is proposed that involves the accumulation of compressive stresses during cyclic thermal expo-sure. The model attempts to correlate failure of the various TBCs with elements of their structure and its degradation with thermocyclic exposure.     

Erosion Performance of Gadolinium Zirconate-Based Thermal Barrier Coatings Processed by Suspension Plasma Spray

7-8 wt.% Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is the standard thermal barrier coating (TBC) material used by the gas turbines industry due to its excellent thermal and thermo-mechanical properties up to 1200 °C. The need for improvement in gas turbine efficiency has led to an increase in the turbine inlet gas temperature. However, above 1200 °C, YSZ has issues such as poor sintering resistance, poor phase stability and susceptibility to calcium magnesium alumino silicates (CMAS) degradation. Gadolinium zirconate (GZ) is considered as one of the promising top coat candidates for TBC applications at high temperatures (>1200 °C) due to its low thermal conductivity, good sintering resistance and CMAS attack resistance. Single-layer 8YSZ, double-layer GZ/YSZ and triple-layer GZdense/GZ/YSZ TBCs were deposited by suspension plasma spray (SPS) process. Microstructural analysis was carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A columnar microstructure was observed in the single-, double- and triple-layer TBCs. Phase analysis of the as-sprayed TBCs was carried out using XRD (x-ray diffraction) where a tetragonal prime phase of zirconia in the single-layer YSZ TBC and a cubic defect fluorite phase of GZ in the double and triple-layer TBCs was observed. Porosity measurements of the as-sprayed TBCs were made by water intrusion method and image analysis method. The as-sprayed GZ-based multi-layered TBCs were subjected to erosion test at room temperature, and their erosion resistance was compared with single-layer 8YSZ. It was shown that the erosion resistance of 8YSZ single-layer TBC was higher than GZ-based multi-layered TBCs. Among the multi-layered TBCs, triple-layer TBC was slightly better than double layer in terms of erosion resistance. The eroded TBCs were cold-mounted and analyzed by SEM.     

AZ31镁合金在MgSO4溶液中的电化学行为

用线性电位扫描、Tafel极化曲线、恒流放电、交流阻抗、失重法等方法研究AZ31镁合金在MgSO4溶液中的电化学行为，考察其作为电池负极材料的性能，并研究十二烷基苯磺酸钠对AZ31镁合金的缓蚀性能。结果表明：负差效应的存在极大降低AZ31镁合金的电流效率；未经放电时，合金自放电电流密度小，但放电后，自放电增强，存储能力降低。十二烷基苯磺酸钠能对AZ31合金起到缓蚀作用，提高放电电流效率，但会使续放电时出现电位滞后的现象。     

等离子工艺热障涂层的热疲劳分析

热障涂层作为先进的热防护技术,在航空发动机热端部件上有重要的应用,它与先进气膜冷却技术、先进单晶合金材料技术并称为航空发动机涡轮叶片三大关键技术。为了保证发动机安全可靠地工作,研究并测试热障涂层的力学参数和热疲劳特性是其工程应用的前提与基础。本文以等离子喷涂工艺制备的热障涂层为研究对象,利用共振原理和复合梁理论,获得了热障涂层表层一陶瓷层从常温到1150℃高温条件下的杨氏模量。同时,鉴于热障涂层的热疲劳失效模式为剥落,着重对热障涂层的热疲劳特性进行研究。以带热障涂层的圆管试样为模拟件进行了热疲劳试验,试验载荷选择50℃／1050℃的梯形波。利用所测试的材料参数和有限元方法进行了热变形分析,提取了热疲劳寿命控制参量,对模拟试样的热疲劳寿命进行了预测,结果显示,预测结果较为精确。     

Synthesis,spheroidization and spray deposition of lanthanum zirconate using thermal plasma process

During the last decade, research efforts were devoted to the development and manufacturing of ceramic thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) on turbine parts because the traditional turbine materials have reached the limits of their temperature capabilities. TBCs have been widely used in hot-section metal components in gas turbines either to increase the inlet temperature with a consequent improvement of the efficiency or to reduce the requirements of the cooling air. There are several ceramics that have been evaluated as TBC materials, and lanthanum zirconate (LZ) is one of the most promising among them. The properties namely high-melting point, phase stability up to its melting point, low thermal conductivity, low sintering ability and oxygen-non transparent make the LZ a potential TBC material for high-temperature applications. However, the production methods used to synthesise LZ are highly time consuming and the powder is not commercially available. Hence, in this investigation an attempt was made to synthesise, spheroidize and spray deposit LZ material using thermal plasma process. This paper illustrates the effectiveness of thermal plasma as a major materials processing technique. Suitable characterization techniques have been used to study the material modifications after respective plasma processing exposures.     

声发射技术在热障涂层失效机理中的研究进展及展望

热障涂层（TBCs）具有优异的高温抗氧化、高温力学和抗热腐蚀性能而备受关注,广泛应用于航空发动机和燃气轮机热端部件中。热障涂层服役环境的恶劣和涂层体系结构的复杂,极易导致涂层发生界面分层或剥落失效,因此通过对热障涂层的裂纹萌生和扩展问题进行实时监测,对于失效机理研究显得尤为重要。简述光激发荧光压电光谱（PLPS）、红外热成像（IRT）、阻抗谱（IS）的原理及其在热障涂层失效行为研究中的应用,重点介绍声发射技术在热障涂层失效机理方面的研究成果。基于声发射的热障涂层失效过程的信号分析和深度处理,结合声发射技术在热障涂层中的参数分析和波形分析,对热障涂层失效过程及失效形态进行模式识别,通过损伤程度的定量评估来进行热障涂层的寿命预测。对声发射技术在热障涂层失效预测及寿命评估指明了方向,并创新性地对未来声发射技术在热障涂层的疲劳损伤方面研究趋势提出展望。     

Low Thermal Conductivity Coatings for Gas Turbine Applications

Plasma spraying of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) on gas turbine parts is widely used today either to enable higher-turbine inlet temperatures with consequent improvement of combustion efficiency or to reduce the requirements for the cooling system and increase component life-time. Development of low conductivity TBCs, which allows us to further increase gas turbine efficiency and availability, is an ongoing challenge. In order to get low thermal conductivity values an experimental program was conducted. Yttria partially stabilized zirconia (YPSZ) and dysprosia partially stabilized zirconia (DyPSZ) were used to study the influence of power input in the plasma torch and powder feed rate on coating properties. Microstructure evaluations were performed to evaluate the influence of the spraying parameters on the coating morphology and porosity level. Laser Flash (LF) and Transient Plane Source (TPS) methods were utilized to evaluate the coatings thermal conductivity and a comparison between the two methods conducted as well as a correlation study between coating microstructure/composition and thermal conductivity (TC).     

Development of Low-Oxide MCrAlY Coatings for Gas Turbine Applications

Advanced high-energy plasma systems are being used to achieve the benefits of the high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) system without losing the inherent advantages of plasma for coating of gas turbine parts. MCrAlY coatings play a very important role in the performance and reliability of gas turbine components. One of the important considerations for next generation of gas turbines, which have more demanding conditions and need to withstand ever increasing operating temperatures, is that they should possess very low oxygen content levels in the coating. Low oxygen content coatings are applied by the expensive low-pressure plasma spray (LPPS)/vacuum plasma spray (VPS) technique for critical components in aero- and land-based gas turbines. This work deals with the development of low-cost LPPS equivalent coatings (having low oxygen content) using the high-energy high-velocity plasma spray (HEHVPS) gun and inert gas shroud. A comparison has also been made with CoNiCrAlY coatings by HVOF.     

Low Thermal Conductivity Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia Thermal Barrier Coatings Using the Solution Precursor Plasma Spray Process

The primary function of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) is to insulate the underlying metal from high temperature gases in gas turbine engines. As a consequence, low thermal conductivity and high durability are the primary properties of interest. In this work, the solution precursor plasma spray (SPPS) process was used to create layered porosity, called inter-pass boundaries, in yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) TBCs. IPBs have been shown to be effective in reducing thermal conductivity. Optimization of the IPB microstructure by the SPPS process produced YSZ TBCs with a thermal conductivity of 0.6 W/mK, an approximately 50% reduction compared to standard air plasma sprayed (APS) coatings. In preliminary tests, SPPS YSZ with IPBs exhibited equal or greater furnace thermal cycles and erosion resistance compared to regular SPPS and commercially made APS YSZ TBCs.     

PVD TBC experience on GE aircraft engines

The higher performance levels of modern gas turbine engines present significant challenges in the reli-ability of materials in the turbine. The increased engine temperatures required to achieve the higher per-formance levels reduce the strength of the materials used in the turbine sections of the engine. Various forms of thermal barrier coatings have been used for many years to increase the reliability of gas turbine engine components. Recent experience with the physical vapor deposition process using ceramic material has demonstrated success in extending the service life of turbine blades and nozzles. Engine test results of turbine components with a 125 μm (0.005 in.) PVD TBC have demonstrated component operating tem-peratures of 56 to 83 °C (100 to 150 °F) lower than non-PVD TBC components. Engine testing has also revealed that TBCs are susceptible to high angle particle impact damage. Sand particles and other engine debris impact the TBC surface at the leading edge of airfoils and fracture the PVD columns. As the impacting continues, the TBC erodes in local areas. Analysis of the eroded areas has shown a slight increase in temperature over a fully coated area ; however, a significant temperature reduc-tion was realized over an airfoil without TBC.