Science, fallacies and ethics.

Psychological experiments with human subjects are frequently based on faulty assumptions which may lead not only to erroneous conclusions but also to warped ethics. Motivational studies often assume implicity and without empirical evidence different motives in E and in S for participating in the experiment. The principle of parsimony requires a single explanation for E's and S's behavior when it is virtually identical. Milgram's experiments on "obedience" are used to illustrate the application of identical explanatory principles to E's and S's behavior and are shown to have tested the release of aggression in a situation which facilitated the use of rationalization and displacement. Experiments with human Ss are shown to be undemocratic and unnecessary in instances where the behavior of the Ss can be predicted from E's behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relation between IQ, impulsivity, and delinquency: Remarks on the Lynam, Moffitt, and Southamer-Loeber (1993) interpretation.

A recent report by D. Lynam, M. Moffitt, & M. Stouthamer-Loeber (see record 1993-29924-001) examined the inverse relation between IQ and delinquency and concluded that the observed relation represents "an influence of compromised intelligence on delinquent behavior" (p. 193). Specifically, the role of impulsivity in understanding this relation was discounted. The author considers the conceptual, operational, and analytical bases of the Lynam et al. report and argues that their neurologically based view of "executive dysfunction" as underlying delinquency is selectively portrayed. It is further contended that IQ scores, used as their index of brain–behavior relations, are only remotely related to specifiable neurological functioning. The Lynam et al. conclusion that impulsivity cannot appreciably explain the relation between IQ and delinquency is shown to depend on the analytical approach used. Analyzed alternatively, impulsivity emerges as the more important predictor that can mediate the observed IQ and delinquency relation. Social policy implications of these differing interpretations are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling techniques, drug-abstinence behavior, and heroin addicts: A pilot study.

Investigated the applicability of a "vicarious behavior induction" (VBI) strategy to a residential treatment program for heroin addicts. This strategy was tested using a "videomodel" procedure, in which Ss viewed a series of videotapes developed to depict a model exhibiting "coping" behavior in solving problems related to maintaining drug abstinence (i.e., accepting help, job interviewing, capitalizing on street skills). These results were compared to those obtained from Ss who had viewed a videotaped lecture about coping behavior ("videolecture"). 22 Black heroin addicts from an urban community-based residential drug-abuse treatment program were randomly assigned to either a videomodel or videolecture group. In small subgroups they discussed their respective videotapes with an ex-addict paraprofessional and the E. Ss who participated in the videomodeling group had substantially better vocational outcomes 30, 90 and 180 days after treatment than those who participated in the videolecture group. Advantages of the VBI behavior change strategy are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioned incentive motivation, spontaneous behaviour, and inhibition of delay.

Trial-by-trial changes in spontaneous behavior produced by a 2-min tone (CS) followed by a liquid reinforcer (UCS) were examined in 6 rats. These changes served as a measure of conditioned incentive motivation. Over the 1st 4 or 5 conditioning sessions, the onset of CS produced increasing numbers of magazine-oriented responses and decreasing amounts of grooming. With further conditioning, there was evidence of temporal discrimination (inhibition of delay) within the 2-min CS period. Satiation and increased drive diminished the discrimination between pre-CS and during-CS periods as well as the temporal discrimination within the CS period. A within-session "warm-up" effect in these discriminations was also observed. When the same Ss were tested in a different situation, where there was no water magazine, the changes in behavior observed on the presentation of CS differed in that no inhibition of delay was observed. Incentive-motivational change in spontaneous behavior is regarded as an effective means for studying inhibition-of-delay phenomena. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality, development, and counseling psychology: Depth, ambivalence, and actualization.

Although there is a profound connection between personality and developmental psychology on the one hand and counseling psychology on the other, this relationship has been marked by ambivalence. Reasons for this are discussed, and it is suggested that the relationship is moving in the direction of actualization. Four substantive areas are explored in which personality and developmental psychology both inform and are influenced by counseling psychology: career behavior, cultural identity, psychoanalysis, and adult development. Finally, the "healthy personality" is examined as an area of personality and developmental psychology in which counseling psychology has not fulfilled its promise, and the importance and possible directions of such work are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived competencies, peer group affiliation, and risk behavior among early adolescents.

This study examined the role of self-esteem and peer group membership in risk behavior among 183 8th graders in a multiethnic school. The hypothesis was that domain-specific rather than global self-esteem would be associated with "crowd" membership that in turn would be related to risk behavior. Data were gathered through informant interviews and individual surveys. Domain-specific self-esteem was related to crowd affiliation as well as to alcohol and cigarette use; global self-esteem was not related. Crowd affiliation related to alcohol use and sexual behavior after controlling for the effects of demographic and self-esteem variables, but crowd membership did not fully mediate the relationship between self-esteem and risk behavior. Availability of alcohol and cigarettes mediated the relationship between crowd affiliation and use of these substances. Findings support growing evidence that multiple adolescent peer groups exist and that group membership is closely tied to behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative importance of face, body, and speech in judgments of personality and affect.

Three experiments correlated judgments made from observing single channels (face, body, or speech) with multiple channel judgments (face, body, and speech together; or face and speech together). Judges observed the spontaneous behavior of videotaped student nurses in 2 types of interview situations, "deceptive" and "honest," and rated the nurses on 14 bipolar adjective scales (e.g., awkward–natural). The single channel judgments that correlated most highly with the multiple channel judgments depended on the type of attribute being judged and the situation in which the behavior occurred (e.g., in the deception condition, judgments made from speech had the highest correlation with whole-person judgments). (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self- and other-appraisals by suicidal, psychosomatic, and normal hospitalized patients.

The 3 groups of patients rated themselves and others by a semantic differential on the factor scales of evaluation, activity, and potency. Suicidal Ss rated themselves lower in value and potency, both absolutely and in comparison to other people, than did the psychosomatic and normal groups. The extent of the negative self-evaluation was considered surprising, particularly on the potency factor. It is suggested that the feeling of impotence may be more important in producing suicidal behavior than the feeling of being "good" or "bad." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Etiology and treatment of obesity: Understanding a serious, prevalent, and refractory disorder.

Obesity remains a leading public health problem because of its complications, prevalence, and resistance to change, despite record rates of dieting. Risk factors exist at both population and individual levels, thus obesity has diverse etiologies and consequences. Dieting is often grounded in the notion that the body can be molded at will and that the rewards justify the effort, creating a drive for unrealistic goals. This article argues for establishing a "reasonable weight," which may differ from health and aesthetic ideals. Intervention is less a matter of finding a "best" treatment but of finding the approach with "best fit" for the individual. Advances in treatment are most likely when research is driven by theory on the etiology of weight gain, the relapse process, and methods for permanent behavior change. This article integrates information on etiology, social beliefs about body weight, theory, and treatment into a comprehensive and compassionate model for intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of behavioural outcome goals, learning goals, and urging people to do their best on an individual's teamwork behaviour in a group problem-solving task.

States that research has shown that learning goals are superior to outcome goals on complex tasks. The effectiveness of behavioral outcome goals (set using behavioral observation scales), learning goals, and urging people to do their best was examined in the context of a training program designed to improve an individual's teamwork behavior in a group problem-solving task. 50 participants (mean age 25.3 yrs) who set behavioral or learning goals had higher self-efficacy relative to those urged to "do their best". Self-efficacy correlated positively with teamwork behavior and goal commitment. Behavioral goals were superior to learning goals and being urged to "do your best" in bringing about teamwork behavior. These findings suggest that behavioral outcome goals may mitigate the need for learning goals on complex tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The incompleteness of social-psychological theory: Examples from small group, cognitive consistency, and attribution research.

Examined interaction in 28 groups in natural settings using the nonparticipant observation method. Results indicate interpersonal blindness in relationships which hindered problem solving on important issues. A "typical world" (Pattern A) was hypothesized in which individuals expressed minimal emotion, openness, and risk taking, in contrast to an "atypical interpsersonal world" (Pattern B) in which "feelings are expressed and risks are taken; in which helping others to own, to be open, and to experiment occurs; and in which the norms of conformity and antagonism become less potent while the norms of individuality and trust become more potent." The values behind Pattern A, their origin and method of change, are discussed. The incompleteness of cognitive balance, attribution, and social evaluation theories in regard to Pattern B is emphasized. It is concluded that "in the social psychology of interpersonal relations the infrequent, deviant behavior may be the competent or 'healthy' behavior." (49 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introversion, neuroticism, rigidity, and dogmatism.

There are two problems concerning the often hypothesized relationship between neuroticism and behavioral rigidity. First, are there personality dimensions other than neuroticism which affect the relationship? Eysenck (1947) hypothesized that introverted neurotics are rigid, but that extroverted neurotics are not. Second, Rokeach (1960) offered a distinction between rigidity and dogmatism, in which rigidity can be defined as the inability to produce novel or changed responses while dogmatism can be defined as an inability to utilize novel responses which have been produced. Which of these two types of inflexibility characterizes neurotics? To explore for answers for these two questions, a 2 × 2 experimental design was set up. Two conclusions follow from this study. The first is that it is inappropriate to speak loosely of the "rigidity" or "inflexibility" of neurotic behavior, as it was shown that neurotics are not different from non-neurotics in their ability to produce novel responses, but only in their ability to utilize such responses. Secondly, not all neurotics manifest this inability; it is shown by introverted neurotics only. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Basic behavioral science research for mental health: Perception, attention, learning, and memory.

Examines the cognitive processes of sensation and perception, attention, learning, and memory to understand cognitive disorders seen in mental illnesses. The sensation and perception review includes recognizing patterns and shapes, perceiving words in reading and the "Where" and "When" Modules of the visual system. The focus on attention concerns it's important cognitive role to planned, adaptive behavior. Many aspects of learning are discussed, including learning and prediction, conditioning and addiction, instrumental learning, modulating and preserving behavior, and social learning of fears and phobias. Reconstructive memory, emotion and memory, forms of memory (working and implicit memory), and the cognitive unconscious are discussed. Directions for future research on perception, attention, learning, and memory are given. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of psychodiagnostic labels, depression severity, and instructions on assessment.

Previous research suggests that the accuracy with which clinicians assess normal behavior may be impaired by inaccurate clinical labels. We examined the impact of a psychodiagnostic label on the accuracy of assessment of normal behavior and abnormal behavior that were either consistent or inconsistent with the label. Practicing psychologists observed three videotapes depicting intake interviews with three "clients" and provided DSM-III diagnoses and observational data after each videotape. We provided half of the subjects with traditional diagnostic instructions and the other half with behavioral assessment instructions. The label had either a neutral or negative effect, depending on its relation to the behaviors portrayed; the presence of the label decreased diagnostic accuracy for the normal client. Moreover, for the normal client, the diagnostic data were more susceptible to bias than were the behavioral assessment data. We suggest that a focus on specific behaviors, as opposed to global diagnostic impressions, helps clinicians to minimize potential biasing effects of inaccurate labels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The error of accepting the "theoretical" null hypothesis: The rise, fall, and resurrection of commonsense hypotheses in psychology.

When psychologists test a commonsense (CS) hypothesis and obtain no support, they tend to erroneously conclude that the CS belief is wrong. In many such cases it appears, after many years, that the CS hypothesis was valid after all. It is argued that this error of accepting the "theoretical" null hypothesis reflects confusion between the operationalized hypothesis and the theory or generalization that it is designed to test. That is, on the basis of reliable null data one can accept the operationalized null hypothesis (e.g., "A measure of attitude x is not correlated with a measure of behavior y"). In contrast, one cannot generalize from the findings and accept the abstract or theoretical null (e.g., "We know that attitudes do not predict behavior"). The practice of accepting the theoretical null hypothesis hampers research and reduces the trust of the public in psychological research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Training group members to set session agendas: Effects on in-session behavior and member outcome": Correction to Kivlighan, Jauquet, Hardie, Francis, and Hershberger.

Reports an error in "Training group members to set session agendas: Effects on in-session behavior and member outcome" by Dennis M. Kivlighan, Carol A. Jauquet, Anne W. Hardie, Anna Maria Francis and Bernard Hershberger (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1993[Apr], Vol 40[2], 182-187). In Table 4 (p. 186) the values for the means and standard deviations in the second, third, and fourth rows of the "Agenda setting" column were transposed with those in the "No contact" column. The corrected table is presented in this erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1993-26598-001.) Addressed I. D. Yalom's (1983) hypothesis that group members who set session agendas would participate more effectively in group sessions and have enhanced outcomes. The independent variable, agenda, was manipulated by assigning the 24 members of established personal growth groups to 1 of 3 conditions: (1) training in agenda setting, (2) stabilizing interviews, and (3) no-contact control. Group members filled out pre- and posttest measures of enactments of intimate behaviors and attitudes toward these enactments. They also filled out self- and other ratings of in-group enactments of intimate behaviors, and group leaders rated group members' intimate behavior at the end of each group session. Group members who set here-and-now session agendas enacted more in-group intimate behaviors and had better outcomes. Implications of these results and suggestions for group counseling are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In the matter of juries, democracy, science, truth, senators, and bugs.

An investigation by the Internal Security Subcommittee of the Senate Judiciary Committee of a research inquiry at the University of Chicago involving the recording of jury deliberations is reported in detail. "In this instance freedom of enquiry… clashed… with the value society holds at least as dear as freedom of inquiry—the right to privacy." The incident illustrated "… some of the current hostility to social scientists." "It is vastly important, both for democracy and for behavioral science, that ways be found whereby our behavior and our institutions can be studied with greatest profit and least harm to the sanctities we live by." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)