Human information processing in navigational displays.

Studies of abstract picture–sentence verification tasks have shown that people exhibit directional biases in the way they think about spatial orientation; for example, they decide faster about diagrams involving the term "right" than the term "left." The roles of these and other human limitations in processing displays of target and own-ship movements were evaluated with 2 groups (experienced and inexperienced) of 7 submarine officers each. In 2 1-hr sessions, each officer made 192 judgments of computer-generated diagrams repesenting the linear movements of own ship and target ship. The standard picture verification task paradigm was used to measure response times. Direction of motion, right or left, per se did not reliably influence response time, but the S's level of experience, amount of practice at the task, display truth value, stimulus congruity, and stimulus–response compatibility did. The study demonstrates how the effects of factors isolated through basic research can be demonstrated in operationally relevant tasks. Implications for training are discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual cues and release from proactive inhibition in young and old people.

Three experiments examined whether elderly people perform similarly to Korsakoff amnesics on tests of release from proactive inhibition (PI). In Exp I, with 20 18–36 yr old undergraduates, 20 64–77 yr old university alumni, 20 employed 21–43 yr olds, and 21 institutionalized but healthy 71–92 yr olds, only the latter Ss failed to release from PI, like Korsakoff amnesics, whereas all the other groups of Ss showed the normal release from PI. Exp II, with 12 institutionalized 64–90 yr olds and 12 25–47 yr old controls, showed that release from PI could be induced in institutionalized elderly, as in Korsakoff amnesics, by salient environmental cues that coincided with the category shift. Exp III, with 13 67–89 yr old institutionalized Ss and 12 22–42 yr old controls, demonstrated that even in the absence of a category shift, salient environmental cues could lead to smaller, but noticeable, release from PI in institutionalized elderly, but not in young controls. The similarity in performance between the institutionalized elderly and Korsakoff amnesics suggested that it results from a common neurological deficit. (French abstract) (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contamination of facial memory through exposure to misleading composite pictures.

In Exp I, 46 male and 51 female undergraduates witnessed a filmed incident and later described the target. Results show that Ss who observed a composite containing misleading information (either incorrect hair or an added moustache) were significantly more likely to misreport hairstyle and the presence of a moustache than those who did not. In Exp II, 210 17–65 yr old Ss observed a filmed incident and were tested for their recall and recognition of the target either immediately or after delays of 2 or 7 days. Significant bias, consistent with the content of the misleading composite, was present for both cued recall and choice of mug shot in a photo spread. The effect did not increase over delay but was greater when the composite was seen just prior to recall than immediately after the incident. Implications concerning interference with the memory of the witness who produced the composite and for other witnesses exposed to the misleading composite are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing deficits in Turner's syndrome.

Exp I compared 31 female 11–28 yr old Turner syndrome (TS) Ss and 31 matched controls on a mental rotation task. Although both groups utilized the some rotation strategy, TS Ss were less accurate and slower than controls in the rotational component of the task. Exp II compared 23 TS Ss and 23 matched controls (mean age 15.4 yrs) on a sentence verification task. No differences were observed between the groups in accuracy, strategy, or processing rates, although RTs of the TS group were significantly longer. Exp III studied a set of 12.5-yr-old dizygotic twins, one of whom had TS. Results replicate the findings of Exps I and II. Also discussed are the specific processing deficits in TS and the role of biological factors that may contribute to them. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processing by prelingual deaf students as a function of language context.

Investigated the influence of language mode (print or sign) and syntax (English or American Sign Language [ASL]) on recall, preference, and comprehension. In Exp I, the effects of reading meaningful print passages in ASL or English were tested for 12 16–29 yr old deaf and 12 16–28 yr old hearing Ss. An effort toward comprehension interpretation was supported for the hearing Ss only. Deaf Ss not trained in ASL exhibited a familiarity with ASL syntax not exhibited by the hearing Ss. In Exp II, meaningful passages were presented to 30 15–19 yr old prelingual deaf Ss in 4 language contexts (signed English, signed ASL, print English, and print ASL) in a free recall task. Results show greater recall from ASL than from English contexts. Findings indicate that the visual orientation of prelingual deaf individuals, regardless of training in ASL, leads to the development of a sign-based encoding system that responds to ASL as a familiar language. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigation of the Karnofsky Performance Status as a measure of quality of life.

Inter-rater reliability of the Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS) was studied in Exp I, using primarily male Veteran's Administration Medical Center patients; 6 psychiatric outpatients (average age 48 yrs), alcoholic rehabilitation inpatients (average age 45 yrs), general medical inpatients (average age 62 yrs), nursing home residents (average age 74 yrs), and terminally ill patients (average age 70 yrs) were used. In Exp II, inter-rater reliability and concurrent and discriminant validity were studied, using 20 28–61 yr old normals, 20 21–65 yr old outpatients, 20 28–71 yr old pain patients, 20 21–67 yr old dialysis patients, and 20 20–66 yr old stroke patients, primarily male. Results show that the KPS was acceptably reliable and valid as a global measure but failed to capture adequately the conceptual domain of quality of life. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detection of intermodal proprioceptive–visual contingency as a potential basis of self-perception in infancy.

Four studies investigated 29 3-mo-old (Exp IV) and 60 5-mo-old (Exps I–III) infants' capacity to detect proprioceptive–visual relations uniting self-motion with a visual display of that motion. Previous research has shown that 5-mo-old infants can detect the invariant relationship between their own leg motion and a video display of that motion. The 1st 3 experiments showed that the 5-mo-olds discriminated between a perfectly contingent live display of their own leg motion and a noncontingent display of self or a peer. They showed this discrimination by preferential fixation of the noncontingent display. This effect was evident even when an S's direct view of his/her own body was occluded, eliminating video image discrimination on the basis of an intramodal visual comparison between the sight of self-motion and the video display of that motion. These results suggest that the contingency provided by a live display of one's body motion is perceived by detecting the invariant intermodal relationship between proprioceptive information for motion and the visual display of that motion. The detection of these relations may be fundamental to the development of self-perception in infancy. Although 3-mo-olds did not show significant discrimination of the contingent and noncontingent displays in Exp IV, they did show significantly more extreme looking proportions to the 2 displays than did the 5-mo-olds. This may reflect the infant's progression from a self- to a social orientation. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in memory-driven selective attention.

Investigated the ability of young and elderly adults to use memory-driven selective attention in 2 visual-search experiments. In Exp I, 16 18–22 yr olds and 16 60–74 yr olds were Ss in a yes–no search paradigm. Stimulus-onset-asynchrony (SOA) was varied from 200 to 1,000 msec. In Exp II, 18 18–24 yr olds and 18 60–73 yr olds were presented 1 of 2 target letters as a cue, using the same SOA ranges. Results in both experiments show that both age groups exhibited faster RTs to a visual display on trials when advance information (a cue) correctly predicted the particular target letter that would most likely be present in the display. Variations in the SOA between the cue and the display demonstrated that both age groups were capable of developing this selective preparation for a particular target letter within 200 msec. Results indicate that age differences in performance were determined primarily by quantitative changes in the speed of information processing rather than by qualitative changes in attention. In both experiments, the 2 age groups differed in the type of relationship between speed and accuracy that they adopted, suggesting a possible age difference in performance strategy. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of word imagery on reading performance as a function of reader ability.

Conducted 3 experiments on the effects of word imagery, length, and frequency on reading difficulty. Ss were 27 8-10 yr old poor readers in Exp I, 24 8-11 yr old good readers in Exp II, and 10 poor and 10 good readers (mean age 9 yrs 6 mo) in Exp III. High frequency words were found to be easier to read for both good and poor readers. High-imagery words were easier to read for poor readers only. Word length had little effect on reading difficulty for either good or poor readers. The differential effect of word imagery on reading difficulty for good and poor readers is interpreted in terms of the types of reading strategy used--phonics for good readers and whole word reading for poor readers. When children are forced to learn to read words by a whole word method, word imagery predicts ease of learning for both good and poor readers. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning a new bimanual coordination pattern: Reciprocal influences of intrinsic and to-be-learned patterns.

Examined the following questions: (1) How do previously learned coordination patterns affect new learning (Exp 1)? and (2) How does new learning affect the performance of intrinsic coordination patterns (Exp 2)? In Exp 1, 12 20–24 yr olds practiced either a 45° or a 135° relative phase pattern for 4 days; in Exp 2, 7 21–24 yr olds practiced a 90° relative phase pattern over 6 days. Retention tests were conducted 4 wks after the last practice session in both experiments. Performance on both the in-phase (0°) and anti-phase (180°) patterns was also measured on each day. Results reveal that reciprocal effects between the intrinsic patterns and the new pattern were only temporary, and did not affect learning in any permanent way. Learning a new pattern was not differentially affected by its relation to an intrinsic pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Presentation mode, task importance, and cue order in experimental research on expert judges.

Used 140 23–56 yr old government auditors and 140 23–52 yr old auditors from private companies in 2 experiments investigating presentation mode, task importance, and cue order. In Exp I, 120 of these expert judges (60 from each group) made significantly different probability judgments depending on whether experimental task materials were presented in writing (visual mode), orally (auditory mode), or both (visual/auditory mode). Exp II, using 80 Ss from each group, was designed to partially explain why judgments differed across presentation modes. Results show that materiality (an auditor's term for task importance) interacted with presentation mode but that qualitative/quantitative cue order, a surrogate for time span of recall, did not. Findings provide evidence that research on expert judges should consider the potential costs of sacrificing external validity when the real world equivalent of an experimental task is likely to communicate information verbally or to vary presentation mode. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Directional responses to sounds in young gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus).

Conducted 3 experiments to determine the ability of infant gerbils to approach an auditory stimulus. In Exp I, 48 16–23 day old Ss were tested in a circular apparatus with a central start area and a movable sound source located at 1 of 8 positions around the perimeter. Stimuli included high- and low-intensity presentations of a tape-recorded gerbil social call, a broad-band white noise stimulus, and a no-stimulus control condition. Ss showed a strong tendency to approach the low-intensity social call and a less pronounced tendency to approach the white noise. In Exp II, 24 16–23 day old Ss were tested in the same apparatus with or without ear blocks to determine the role of binaural cues in directional approach responding. The tendency to approach a low-intensity vocalization was disrupted by obstruction of one ear but not by blocking both ears. Thus, binaural balance was shown to be important for early sound localization. In Exp III, using 6 12–27 day old Ss, the tendency to approach a social call was compared at 12–25, 16–29, 20–23, and 24–27 days after birth. Approach responses were first seen at 16–29 days of age. The responses continued at 20–23 days of age but began to wane at 24–27 days of age. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive interviewing and practice on children's recall performance.

In Exp 1, a staged event was carried out that involved a private encounter between an unfamiliar man and 2 children. The results show that questioning techniques based on principles from cognitive psychology significantly increased the number of correct facts recalled by both 7–8 yr olds and 10–11 yr olds over that gained with standard interview procedures and without affecting the number of incorrect items generated. These results were replicated in Exp 2 with a different staged event and with 8–9 yr olds and 11–12 yr olds. Exp 2 also assessed the impact of a prior practice cognitive interview, and practice was found to be effective for both age groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time-to-contact judgment in the locomotion of adults and preschool children.

The hypothesis of D. N. Lee (1976), that approach and deceleration toward a surface can be controlled through the rate of change of the optic variable τ, was examined for natural human locomotion. In Exp 1, 12 adults were asked to perform locomotor tasks that required running at speed and then decelerating so that either the hand or head made a controlled contact with a door. In Exp 2, 12 preschool children performed a relay-running task that required similar control. In Exp 3, 12 children and 12 adults ran with a stick as an extension to their arm length and performed the same task. The results supported Lee's hypothesis for the initial phase of approach, but Ss switched to a separate adjustment phase 2–3 arm lengths from the target. Children did not adopt an appropriate τ strategy for collision avoidance and appeared unable to modify their approach strategy to allow for a hand-held stick. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for pictures: Does an age-related decline exist?

Examined the effects of varying detail on memory. In Exp I, pictorial embellishment was varied by presenting 27 Ss aged 60+ yrs and 30 undergraduates with normal photographs, high-contrast photographs, or line drawings, and testing their memory immediately and 4 wks later. All of the Ss did best with the most elaborate pictures (normal photographs), and old Ss remembered as well as young at the immediate but not at the delayed interval. In Exp II, with 21 old Ss and 21 18–36 yr olds, detail was varied by adding background to line drawings of a central object. Ss of both ages profited from enhanced background detail, and there were no differences in memory as a function of age. Exp III replicated Exp II, except that Ss (10 elderly and 17 college students) studied the pictures under divided attention conditions. Again, Ss of both ages recognized elaborate pictures best, and no significant age differences emerged. Results suggest that old and young adults profit from visual embellishment and that memory for meaningful pictures remains relatively intact with age. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Low-ball procedure for producing compliance: Commitment then cost.

Examined the low-ball technique, a tactic often used by automobile sales dealers to produce compliance from customers, in a set of 3 experiments. In all 3 studies, a requester who induced Ss to make an initial decision to perform a target behavior and who then made performance of the behavior more costly obtained greater final compliance than a requester who informed Ss of the full costs of the target behavior from the outset. The low-ball phenomenon—that an active preliminary decision to take an action tends to persevere even after the costs of performing the action have been increased—was found to be reliable (Exp I), different from the foot-in-the-door effect (Exp II), and effective only when the preliminary decision was made with a high degree of choice (Exp III). In competition with 3 other conceptual explanations, a formulation based on the concept of commitment was seen to best account for the results. An ecologically derived strategy for the identification and investigation of research questions is discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Laterality and visual masking: Interhemispheric communication and the locus of perceptual asymmetries for words.

Exps I and II (with 16 17–32 yr old right handers) measured the critical interstimulus interval at which a word presented to the right or left field escaped a trailing noise or pattern mask. Perceptual asymmetries were absent in the noise mask condition. A right-field advantage of about 4 msec that did not vary with predictability of target location was found in the pattern mask condition. Exp III (8 Ss) showed that pattern masking leads to a right-field advantage even when accuracy is well below asymptote. Results suggest that hemispheric differences for word identification are either absent or inconsistent at early, peripheral stages of processing, but emerge strongly at higher-order central processing stages. The estimate of interhemispheric transmission times from these masking studies are on the order of 4 msec. (French abstract) (79 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential memory changes with age: Exact retrieval versus plausible inference.

Conducted 2 experiments on the use of direct retrieval and plausibility memory strategies in elderly and college-age adults. In Exp I, which used an episodic memory task, data were obtained from 49 65–80 yr old college alumni and from 58 college students who had served in a previous study by the 1st author (see record 1983-02731-001). Findings indicate that older Ss effectively used the plausibility strategy but performed more poorly than younger Ss when the direct retrieval strategy was required. Results of Exp II, using 18 college alumni (8 Ss aged 20–31 yrs, 10 Ss aged 64–75 yrs) with a semantic memory task, show that older Ss' accuracy was essentially undistinguishable from that of younger Ss as long as a plausibility judgment process produced the correct response. It is argued that careful inspection is a much more costly process for older adults than it is for young adults but that plausibility judgments and feature overlap processes are equally easy for both age groups. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)