The effect of different methods to add nitrogen to titanium alloys on the properties of titanium nitride clad layers

In this investigation, titanium nitride (TiN) reinforcements are synthesized in situ on the surface of Ti–6Al–4V substrates with gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process by different methods to add nitrogen, nitrogen gas or TiN powder, to titanium alloys. The results showed that if nitrogen gas was added to titanium alloys, the TiN phase would be formed. But if TiN powder was added to titanium alloys, TiN + TiN_x dual phases would be presented. The results of the dry sliding wear test revealed that the wear performance of the Ti–6Al–4V alloy specimen coated with TiN or TiN + TiN_x clad layers were much better than that of the pure Ti–6Al–4V alloy specimen. Furthermore, the evolution of the microstructure during cooling was elucidated and the relationship among the wear behavior of the clad layer, microstructures, and microhardness was determined.     

Wear and friction of Al–Al<Subscript>2</Subscript>O<Subscript>3</Subscript> composites at various sliding speeds

The present study addresses the dry wear behavior of Al₂O₃ 6061 Aluminum particulate composite under different sliding speeds and applied load using pin-on-disk tribometer at room temperature. Three grades of the submicron particle composites containing 10, 20, and 30 vol.% Al₂O₃ were tested. The results illustrate that higher load and higher concentration of Al₂O₃ particles lead to higher wear rates. For 10 and 20% Al₂O₃ concentrations, the wear rate decreases with increasing sliding speed, while it increases for 30% Al₂O₃. The surface morphologies of the worn composites indicate that at lower sliding speeds abrasion is dominant, while at higher sliding speeds delamination and adhesion increases. Results also indicate that the friction coefficient between the composite and the mating steel surface decreases with increasing sliding speed to a steady state.     

Plasma Post Oxidation of Plasma Nitrocarburized SKD 61 Steel

Plasma nitrocarburizing and plasma oxidizing treatments were performed to improve the wear and corrosion resistance of SKD 61 steel.Plasma nitrocarburizing was conducted for 12 h at 540℃in the nitrogen, hydrogen and methane atmosphere to produce theε-Fe-（2-3）（N,C） phase.The compound layer produced by plasma nitrocarburising was predominantly composed ofε-phase,with a small proportion ofγ′-Fe-4 （N,C） phase. The thickness of the compound layer and the diffusion layer are about 10μm and about 200μm,respectively. Plasma post oxidation was performed on the nitrocarburized samples with various oxygen/hydrogen ratio at constant temperature of 500℃for 1 h.The very thin magnetite （Fe-3O-4） layer of 1-2μm in thickness on top of the compound layer was obtained.Anodic polarization test revealed that plasma nitrocarburizing process contributed a significant improvement of corrosion resistance of SKD 61 steel.However,the corrosion characteristics of the nitrocarburized compound layer was deteriorated by oxidation treatment.     

Numerical modeling and experimental investigation of the superficial layer of SKD61 steel during laser surface hardening

Abstract

Laser heating of SKD61 steel usually causes the formation of a melting layer on the steel surface, which is of poor thermal conductivity and diffusivity. The modified Ashby‐Easterling heat‐transfer equation was used to simulate the temperature distribution for laser surface hardening of SKD61 steel. The phase transformation temperatures of SKD61 in the quenched and as‐received conditions were compared with each other for different laser energy densities. When the laser was focused on the steel, the temperature of the SKD61 was raised. Due to the effect of superheating, the critical phase transformation temperature in laser hardening became higher than the austenized temperature (1010°C) in traditional quenching. However, the critical phase transformation temperature of SKD61 decreased with increasing laser energy density.     

Impact of lubrication on the tribological behaviour of PTFE composites for guide rings application

In this study, the friction and wear behaviours of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-based composites were comparatively evaluated under dry sliding and oil-lubricated conditions. Two PTFE composites filled with bronze and bronze + molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) were considered. These composites were used as guide rings for hydraulic actuating cylinder. Friction and wear tests of the composite specimens sliding against high chromium steel ball were conducted using reciprocating linear tribometer. The wear mechanisms of the composites under the two different sliding conditions were analysed and discussed based on scanning electron microscopic (SEM) examinations of the worn surface and optical micrographs of the steel counterface. Under the oil-lubricated condition, the friction and wear behaviours of the composites were considerably improved if compared to that under the dry sliding. The oil adsorbed layer limited the transfer of the composite to the steel counterface and avoided the oxidation of the MoS₂ during the sliding test.     

Tribological behavior of Ti3SiC2/(WC–10Co) composites prepared by spark plasma sintering

The dry sliding friction and wear behavior of Ti₃SiC₂/(WC–10Co) composites (TWCs) against GCr15 steel pair at room temperature was investigated through the determination of friction coefficient and wear rate under different conditions and the analysis of the morphologies and compositions of wear debris, worn surfaces of TWC and GCr15 steel. The friction coefficients of TWC with 3 wt.% WC–10Co were in the range of 0.40–0.48, and the wear rate varied from 0.6 × 10⁻⁴ mm³ (N m)⁻¹ to 1 × 10⁻⁴ mm³ (N m)⁻¹. At the load of 10 N and sliding speed of 0.353 m/s, the glazes were formed on the worn surfaces of TWC. The wear mechanisms were complicated, including micro-cutting and abrasive wear of TWC, oxidation wear of GCr15 steel, as well as adhesive wear caused by the glaze flaking.     

Si3N4和52100钢对磨副材料对CrN薄膜干摩擦学行为的影响

利用阴极电弧离子镀技术在316L不锈钢基体上制备了CrN薄膜。采用扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、X射线衍射仪(XRD)、纳米压痕仪对CrN薄膜的形貌、成分和力学性能进行了表征。为了研究Si_3N_4和52100钢对磨副材料对CrN薄膜和316L不锈钢干摩擦行为的影响,在2N、5N、8N三种载荷下,将CrN薄膜和316L不锈钢基体与Si_3N_4陶瓷球和52100钢球分别进行了往复式滑动干摩擦实验。采用扫描电子显微镜观察了磨痕的微观形貌,并对CrN薄膜和316L不锈钢基体的磨损机制进行了分析。结果表明:CrN薄膜表面平整,缺陷较少;CrN薄膜的纳米硬度约为28GPa,弹性模量约为350GPa;与Si_3N_4陶瓷球相比,CrN薄膜与52100钢球摩擦时摩擦因数相对较小(保持在0.7左右)且更加稳定;316L不锈钢的摩擦因数远大于CrN薄膜且波动较大;对磨球为Si_3N_4陶瓷球时,CrN薄膜的主要磨损机制为磨粒磨损,伴有少量的氧化和黏着磨损,316L不锈钢的磨损机制主要为磨粒磨损和塑性变形,伴有少量的氧化和黏着磨损;对磨球为52100钢球时,CrN薄膜的主要磨损机制为黏着磨损,伴有少量的氧化,316L不锈钢的磨损机制主要为黏着磨损,伴有少量的氧化和磨粒磨损。CrN薄膜与两种对磨球的磨损量均小于316L不锈钢基体的磨损量,说明CrN薄膜有效提高了基体的耐磨性。     

The effects of various reinforcements on dry sliding wear behaviour of AA 6061 nanocomposites

The present work aims to investigate the dry sliding wear behaviour of AA 6061 nanocomposites reinforced with various nanolevel reinforcements, such as titanium carbide (TiC), gamma phase alumina (γ-Al₂O₃) and hybrid (TiC + Al₂O₃) nanoparticles with two weight percentages (wt.%) prepared by 30 h of mechanical alloying (MA). The tests were performed using a pin-on-disk wear tester by sliding these pin specimens at sliding speeds of 0.6, 0.9 and 1.2 m/s against an oil-hardened non-shrinking (OHNS) steel disk at room temperature. Wear tests were conducted for normal loads of 5, 7 and 10 N at different sliding speeds at room temperature. The variations of the friction coefficient and the wear rate with the sliding distances (500 m, 1000 m and 1600 m) for different normal loads and sliding velocities were plotted and investigated. To observe the wear characteristics and to investigate the wear mechanism, the morphologies of the worn surfaces were analysed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The formation of an oxide layer on the worn surface was examined by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The wear rate was found to increase with the load and sliding velocity for all prepared nanocomposites. Hybrid (TiC + Al₂O₃) reinforced AA 6061 nanocomposites had lower wear rates and friction coefficients compared with TiC and Al₂O₃ reinforced AA 6061 nanocomposites.     

Wear behavior of WC<Subscript>P</Subscript>/Fe–C composites under high-speed dry sliding

WC_P/Fe–C composites are manufactured by centrifugal casting method. Dry sliding wear behaviors of the composites containing about 70 vol.% of WC_P were investigated at room temperature against 3Cr2W8V die steel counter face. And wear experiments were performed under loads of 50, 100, 150, and 200 N and sliding velocities of 20, 40, 60, and 80 m/s. Results showed that at the low load of 50 N, the composites, under different sliding velocities, all displayed significantly superior wear resistance. Meanwhile the results also showed that the variation of wear weight loss and wear rate of the composites was almost linear with sliding velocity when the sliding velocity and the load were below 60 m/s and 100 N. But as the sliding velocity and the load exceed 60 m/s and 100 N, the weight loss and wear rate of the composites increased rapidly. But the effect of the load applied on wear weight loss and wear rate was larger than that of the sliding velocity. Finally, the mechanism of the dry sliding wear is discussed in the article.     

Chromium carbide laser-beam surface-alloying treatment on stainless steel

In order to improve the resistance to wear, oxidation and corrosion of a stainless steel die, chromium carbide surface-alloying treatment was carried out on a 12 % Cr stainless steel using a CO₂ laser. Cr₃C₂ powder slurry was coated on the stainless steel and then a 3 kW CO₂ laser beam was used to irradiate the specimen. The thickness of surface-alloyed layer was about 0.3 mm and the chromium concentration was about 40 % throughout the alloyed-region. Large amounts of Cr₃C₂ and Cr₇C₃ were also distributed in this alloyed layer. From the results of the isothermal oxidation test at 960 °C for 100 h, it was found that the surface-alloying treatment improved the oxidation resistance by about 100 times due to the distribution of chromium carbides and the increase in the chromium concentration. The results of the cyclic oxidation test revealed that the oxidation layer was very stable on the chromium carbide surface-alloyed region, while it scaled off very easily from the substrate region due to porous oxidation products. The microhardness was about 1100 H_v due to the dispersion and precipitation of chromium carbides in addition to the martensitic structure in the surface-alloyed region. The microhardness did not decrease much, despite heating at 960 °C for 100 h. The chromium carbide surface-alloying treatment improved the wear-resistance greatly, and the results of the wear-resistance test were very consistent with those of the microhardness test.     

Oscillating sliding wear of TiC and TiN laser hardfacings

TiC- and TiN-steel composite layers containing about 40–60 vol.% of hard phases were produced on a die steel 90MnCrV8 using a Co₂-laser. Resulting layers consisted of homogeneously distributed hard particles (median size: 3 μm and 31 μm) embedded in a martensitic matrix and exhibited low surface roughness. Resistance to oscillating sliding wear was measured using a laboratory tribometer (ball on disc) with counterbodies of bearing steel and Al₂O₃, respectively. Both friction and wear of composites were substantially lower than that of the hardened untreated steel. Wear intensity depended on type and size of incorporated hard particles of the composite layer.     

Sliding wear properties of high purity copper in cryogenic environment

In an effort to understand the influence of cryogenic environment on the friction and wear properties of metallic materials, we performed a series of experiments on high purity work hardened copper (Cu) samples in liquid nitrogen (LN₂) environment against steel (bearing grade; SAE 52100) at varying loads and sliding speeds. The load was varied between 10 and 20 N and sliding speed was varied between 0.89 and 1.34 m/s. In our experiments, a reduction in the steady state coefficient of friction (μ_F) was noted with increasing load (10, 15, 20 N) at the highest sliding speed of 1.34 m/s. High wear rate of the order of 10⁻⁴ mm³/Nm was recorded, which was found to be independent of the load/sliding speed. On the basis of the experimental data and the characteristics of the worn surfaces it is confirmed that significant damage accumulation and plowing-induced material removal contribute to the wear losses. It is noteworthy that oxidative wear or mechanically mixed layer (no transfer from steel counter-body) did not occur to any significant extent under the chosen sliding conditions. The characteristics of the wear damage as a result of cryogenic sliding have been discussed with reference to the prevailing stress conditions and contact temperature.     

Tribological Studies of a Zr‐Based Glass‐Forming Alloy with Different States

The tribological characteristics of a glass‐forming alloy, Zr_52.5Cu_17.9Ni_14.6Al_10.0Ti_5.0, in atomic percent (at.%, Vit 105), with different microstructural states have been investigated. Friction and wear studies were conducted using a ball‐on‐flat reciprocating sliding apparatus against an AISI E52100 bearing steel under dry condition. The observed wear resistance in an ascending order is: the deformed, creep‐tested, and as‐cast states. Wear analyses suggested that the wear processes of glass‐forming alloys involved abrasion, adhesion, and oxidation. The differences in hardness, free volume, and brittleness in different states significantly affected the friction and wear behaviors of the glass‐forming alloys.     

Laser surface alloying of case hardening steel with tungsten carbide and carbon

Abstract

The laser surface alloying process was used to introduce two different alloying materials, tungsten carbide (WC/Co) and carbon, into the molten surface of a case hardening steel (16MnCrS5), to improve its hardness and wear resistance. The chemical composition and the resulting microstructure in the alloyed layers were of particular interest in this investigation, because the strengthening mechanism was strongly dependent upon the type and amount of the alloy material. For laser alloying with carbon the increase in hardness and wear resistance was based on the martensitic transformation in the composition range concerned. For alloying with tungsten carbide it was necessary to consider two different strengthening mechanisms, namely, martensitic transformation and precipitation of carbides. In both cases the grain refinement in the laser affected zone had an additional effect. Resistance to dry abrasive sliding wear was measured using a conventional pin-on-disc wear testing machine. For both alloy materials the wear rate was substantially lower than that of a substrate that had been laser remelted without alloying additions.

MST/1556     

Effects of Al2O3 particle reinforcement on the lubricated sliding wear behavior of ZA-27 alloy composites

The present investigation deals with the effect of Al₂O₃ particle reinforcement on the lubricated sliding behavior of ZA-27 alloy. The composites with 3, 5, and 10 wt% of Al₂O₃ particles were produced by the compocasting procedure. Tribological properties of alloy and composites were studied, using block-on-disk tribometer at different specific loads and sliding speeds. The test results revealed that composite specimens exhibited significantly lower wear rate, but higher coefficient of friction than the matrix alloy specimens in all the combinations of applied loads and sliding speeds. The improved antiwear characteristics of the composites were influenced by positive effects of higher frictional heating on compatibility of the composite phases and suppressing micro-cracking tendency. Due to that, effects of reinforcing hard particles were manifested through the reduced wear rate of composites, especially in conditions of higher load, lower sliding speeds and higher Al₂O₃ particle content. In present wear tests, the significant forming of mechanically mixed layers was not noticed, what is confirmed by the SEM microphotographs.     

W6Mo5Cr4V2高速钢WC/Co激光熔覆表面的摩擦磨损性能

为了改善高速钢表面的摩擦磨损性能,应用激光熔覆技术在W6Mo5Cr4V2高速钢表面制备出WC/Co熔覆道。采用三维数码显微镜观察熔覆试件的金相组织并借助显微硬度计测试其显微硬度。采用销盘式摩擦磨损试验机分别对高速钢和WC/Co熔覆试件进行了摩擦磨损试验,并采用三维数码显微镜观察磨损形貌。结果表明:与高速钢基材相比,WC/Co熔覆道硬度提高,熔覆试件的摩擦系数和磨损量降低;WC/Co熔覆道的磨损机制以磨粒磨损为主,熔覆道间隔以磨粒磨损和黏着磨损为主;熔覆道的硬度提高、减摩效果、散热作用以及试件表面熔覆道与间隔面的软硬交替,有助于提高WC/Co熔覆试件的摩擦磨损性能。     

Controlled synthesis of microarc oxidation coating on Ti6Al4V alloy and its antifriction properties

Abstract

Ceramic coatings were fabricated on a Ti6Al4V alloy surface by microarc oxidation (MAO) in Na₂ SiO₃ – (NaPO₃)₆ aqueous solutions with and without NaAlO₂ additive using an AC power supply. The effect of NaAlO₂ on microstructure, composition, and homogeneity of ceramic coatings were characterised using SEM, XRD, and EPMA. The antifriction property of the coatings with optimised microstructure sliding against SAE 52 100 steel ball was investigated on a pin-on-disc friction and wear tester. The results show that the addition of NaAlO₂ into Na₂ SiO₃ – (NaPO₃)₆ solution assists the formation of more dense, uniform, and thicker coatings and increases rutile TiO₂ content in the coatings. The optimised coating sliding against the steel has a friction coefficient as low as 0.2 – 0.3 at an applied load of 0.5 N and sliding cycle below 2500, which is much smaller than that of uncoated Ti6Al4V against the same counterpart. The transferring of material from the softer steel ball onto the coating surface is the main wear event, while the microarc oxidation coating is characterised by slight abrasive wear and adhesive wear.     

Drilling studies of an Al2O3-Al metal matrix composite

Comparative drilling studies have been carried out for a 20% Al₂O₃ microsphere reinforced Al metal matrix composite (MMC) using a (a) high speed steel (HSS) drill, (b) tungsten carbide (WC) drill and (c) polycrystalline diamond (PCD) drill. In this part of the paper, the flank wear characteristics of the drills have been presented. It is found that for the HSS drill a flank wear of 1.00 mm is reached in drilling for as little as 12 s. In contrast, under similar conditions for the WC drill, a flank wear of 0.16 mm was observed after drilling for a period of 600 s and in the case of the PCD drill, after 2210 s of drilling a flank wear of only 0.12 mm was observed. The PCD drill, however, showed some signs of chipping in the early stage, but this seemed to stabilize later on. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) observations of the worn drill tips revealed that in addition to flank wear the HSS exhibited margin wear, the WC drill exhibited both margin wear and chisel edge wear and the PCD drill displayed crater wear.     

Sliding behaviour of nanophased AISI M2 tool steel obtained by mechanomaking and hot isostatic pressing

Abstract

The friction and wear behaviour of a nanophased AISI grade M2 tool steel was studied under dry sliding conditions and compared with that of a conventional AISI M2 steel. The nanocrystalline steel was produced by mechanosynthesis followed by cold and hot isostatic pressing. Slider-on-cylinder tests were performed against a ceramic coated countermaterial under loads of 10, 20, and 30 N and sliding speeds of 0.3 and 1.2 m s^-1 up to 10 km sliding distance. The nanocrystalline material underwent mild wear with low coefficient of friction under all testing conditions. The commercial M2 steel displayed distance dependent transitions from a regime of mild wear with low coefficient of friction, to a regime of severe wear with high coefficient of friction. The first tribological regime was due to the formation of a layer of iron oxides on the worn surfaces. In this regime, the wear resistance of both steels is mainly dominated by the mechanical properties of the carbides which have high load carrying capability. The second tribological regime, observed in the commercial steel, was due to the formation of cracks both on the mechanically mixed layer and at a depth beneath this layer, which also led to the detachment of carbides from the matrix. This abrasive ‘third body’ produced high wear damage of the commercial steel under high applied loads.     

Comparative Wear Behavior of Ceramic and Carbide Tools During High Speed Machining of Steel

Two types of oxide-based ceramic cutting tools have been developed for high speed machining of hardened steel. These tools were made of alumina (A1₂O₃) and zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA). Commercially available tungsten carbide (WC)-based tools were also used during machining for comparison. In general, ceramic tools exhibited superior performance as compared to the WC tools, especially at higher machining speeds, both in terms of tool life and surface finish of the work-piece. The worn-out tools were observed under a stereo-microscope for studying the role of different wear mechanisms on the tool life. While severe crater wear was observed in the WC tools, only a small amount of edge chipping and nose wear occurred in the ceramic tools during high speed machining. The correlation between the mechanical properties of the tool material, the tool lives and their wear behavior was also studied.