The hidden observer in hypnotic analgesia: Discovery or experimental creation?

Eight highly susceptible (Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale) Ss were assigned to E. R. Hilgard and J. R. Hilgard's (1975) training procedures for eliciting "hidden" reports during hypnotic analgesia. These procedures indicate to Ss that a "hidden part" of themselves continues to feel high levels of pain while their "hypnotized part" experiences reduced pain. Eight additional Ss were given the opposite expectation concerning "hidden pain"—that their "hidden part" would feel less pain than their "hypnotized part." Ss expecting high levels of "hidden" pain reported high levels, whereas those expecting little "hidden" pain reported low levels. Results are inconsistent with the notion that "hidden" reports reflect the intrinsic activity of a "dissociated state." Instead, they indicate that "hidden" reports result from Ss' attempts to convincingly enact the role of "good hypnotic S" as this role is defined for them by the experimental procedures they undergo. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional demands and ratings of overt and hidden pain during hypnotic analgesia.

16 highly hypnotizable (Carlton University Responsiveness to Suggestion Scale) undergraduates rated the intensity of cold pressor pain during a baseline trial and again during 3 hypnotic analgesia trials. During each analgesia trial, Ss were instructed to give overt reports that reflected consciously experienced pain and covert reports that reflected the intensity of "hidden" pain. Treatment instructions administered before the 1st analgesia trial did not specify the relationship between overt and covert pain. Instructions given before the remaining 2 analgesia trials indicated that hidden pain would be either more or less intense than overt pain. Until they were given explicit information about the relative intensities of the pain, Ss reported no differences in the magnitude of overt and covert pain, contrary to the dissociation hypothesis of hypnotic analgesia. Consistent with social psychological formulations of the hidden observer phenomenon, Ss reported both higher covert than overt pain and lower covert than overt pain, depending on the instructions they were administered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotically "reliving" a prior burn: Effects on blister formation and localized skin temperature.

60 Ss who had previously been burned were "hypnotically age regressed" and given both suggestions to "relive" the burn experience and suggestions that a blister was forming. Although 17 Ss reported vividly imagining the burn events, none showed localized skin-coloration changes or evidence of blister formation. Moreover, skin temperature measured before, during, and after age regression indicated no overall suggestion effects. Nevertheless, 1 S did show differential skin-temperature response to the suggestion. This S had showed only moderate hypnotic susceptibility on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trance logic duality and hidden observer responding in hypnotic, imagination control, and simulating subjects: A social psychological analysis.

Tested the hypothesis that a tolerance for logical incongruity characterizes hypnotic responding and is related to reports of duality experiences during age regression and hidden-observer responding during suggested analgesia. 30 undergraduates (the "reals") with high scores on a responsiveness-to-suggestion scale were randomly assigned to hypnotic or imagination control treatments, while 15 undergraduates with low scores were assigned to a simulation treatment in which they were instructed to fake hypnosis. Ss were assessed on 6 indicators of logical incongruity, given age-regression suggestions and perception tasks, administered a suggestion for analgesia and hidden observer instructions, and interviewed. Results do not support the hypothesis. The differences in responding that did emerge between reals and simulators were accounted for by the different task demands to which Ss were exposed. These behavioral differences, which have been previously interpreted in terms of intrinsic characteristics of hypnosis, may instead reflect a combination of between-treatments differences in demands and between-Ss differences in the interpretation of those demands and in the ability to fulfill them. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of experimenter modeling, demands for honesty, and initial level of suggestibility on response to "hypnotic" suggestions.

Pretested 180 college students on behavioral (objective) and experiential (subjective) responses to the test suggestions of the Barber Suggestibility Scale. After being exposed to 1 of 3 treatments--E modeling, hypnotic induction, or control--each S was retested on the same scale. Strong demands to give honest experiential reports were administered to 1/2 of the Ss under each treatment. Ss who were exposed to E modeling manifested a greater enhancement in objective responsiveness to test suggestions than control Ss and as much enhancement as Ss who were exposed to hypnotic induction. E modeling was as effective as hypnotic induction in enhancing sujective responsiveness to test suggestions with and without demands for honest reports. Under both the E modeling and hypnotic induction treatments, Ss who had initially manifested a high level of suggestibility (pretest) showed as much enhancement in subjective responsiveness to test suggestions as medium- or low-suggestible Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis and the dream hidden observer: primary process and demand characteristics

In Study 1, virtuoso (n = 13; passed more than 10 suggestions on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A [HGSHS:A] and Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C), high hypnotizable (n = 14; passed more than 8 suggestions on the HGSHS:A), and medium hypnotizable (n = 17; passed 4-8 suggestions on the HGSHS:A) Ss were administered a hypnotic dream suggestion followed by a "dream hidden observer" suggestion (i.e., access hidden part; have new thoughts and images pertinent to dream). The majority of Ss reported dreams (81.8%) and hidden observers (80%), with hidden reports being characterized by more personal content, less primary processes, and poorer recall than dream reports. Study 2 replicated major findings. Although hypnotized (n = 18) and low hypnotizable simulating Ss (n = 17) responded comparably on most measures, hypnotizable Ss' dreams contained more primary process than did simulating Ss, providing support for M. R. Nash's (1991) psychoanalytic model.     

Pain and dissociation in the cold pressor test: A study of hypnotic analgesia with "hidden reports" through automatic key pressing and automatic talking.

To test whether pain blocked by hypnotic analgesia may still be perceived at some level, 20 highly hypnotizable undergraduates participated in an experiment involving cold pressor pain in the normal condition and in hypnotically suggested analgesia. 3 reports were obtained reflecting felt pain within the hypnotic analgesia condition: the usual verbal report on a numerical scale, a manual report by "automatic key pressing," and a retrospective verbal report through "automatic talking." 9 Ss who were amnesic for both keypressing and automatic talking reported more pain in the automatic (hidden) reports than in their usual verbal reports. 8 of these 9, following release of amnesia, had a clear perception of 2 levels of awareness of the pain: the usual hypnotic experience of pain attenuated by analgesia suggestions, and a knowledge at another level of a more severe pain. In no case, however, did an S give a retrospective report of normal suffering at this "hidden" level. The hypnotically analgesic S may have reported no pain verbally because he was amnesic for it; when amnesia was removed he recalled the sensory pain, but without a suffering component, because suffering apparently did not occur. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processing and expectancy behavior in hypnosis

Two independent studies, each with 60 undergraduates, were conducted to examine the expectancy behavior of unselected hypnotic, task-motivated, and control-imagination Ss on a slide task requiring response to ambiguous visual information. Study 1 tested Ss within 2 positively motivating contexts, which differed in the ease with which they confirmed the hypnotist's expectancy. Study 2 required Ss to shift from reporting one response to reporting an altogether different one when the same stimulus information was presented on successive testing occasions. Results from the program of work show that hypnotic Ss consistently demonstrated expectancy behavior, whereas nonhypnotic Ss did not. Analysis of stimulus matching data and time taken for response further indicated that substantially different cognitive routes were taken by hypnotic Ss in their acquiescence to the hypnotist's demands. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Hidden observer" phenomenon in hypnosis: An experimental creation?

N. P. Spanos and E. C. Hewitt (see record 1981-26428-001) argued that E. R. Hilgard's (e.g., 1979) "hidden observer" phenomenon was a pure laboratory artifact. The present authors reevaluate the Spanos and Hewitt experiment and argue that they do not provide the empirical data to support their conclusions. Several aspects of Spanos and Hewitt's methodological procedures that need to be elucidated before their conclusion is justified are examined. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissociation, duality, and demand characteristics in hypnosis.

Examined hypnotic dissociation (as indexed by the "hidden-observer" method), duality in age regression, and the potential impact of situational cues on these phenomena. 12 high- and 9 low-susceptible undergraduates (as determined by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale) were tested in an application of the real–simulating paradigm of hypnosis; 10 high- to medium-susceptible Ss were also employed. Inquiry into Ss' experiences was conducted through the experiential analysis technique, which involves Ss viewing and commenting on a videotape playback of their hypnotic session. Results demonstrate that neither the hidden-observer effect nor duality could be explained solely in terms of the demand characteristics of the test situation. The hidden-observer effect was observed in high-susceptible Ss only; all Ss who displayed the hidden-observer effect also displayed duality in age regression. High-susceptible Ss were distinctive in their reports of multiple levels of awareness during hypnosis. Findings are discussed in terms of the cognitive skills that Ss bring to hypnosis and the degree to which the hypnotic setting encourages the use of dissociative cognitive processes. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of active alert and relaxation hypnotic inductions on cold pressor pain.

Contrasted relaxation and active alert hypnotic inductions with or without a specific suggestion for cold pressor pain analgesia. Groups of high (n?=?38) and low (n?=?27) hypnotizable Ss were tested; hypnotizability had been determined from results of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C. Cold pressor pain data were obtained after counterbalanced exposure to relaxation and active alert inductions. Highly hypnotizable Ss demonstrated lower pain scores than did low hypnotizable ones. Pain reports did not differ between induction conditions. Highly hypnotizable Ss given an analgesic suggestion showed lower pain scores than did those exposed only to hypnosis. The findings, conceptualized within E. R. Hilgard's (1977) neodissociation theory, show that relaxation is not necessary for hypnotic analgesia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic age regression and eidetic imagery: A failure to replicate.

Notes that N. S. Walker et al (see record 1976-23467-001) reported the restoration of eidetic imagery in hypnotically age-regressed Ss. In an attempted replication of that study, 60 Ss who previously scored high on hypnotic susceptibility were "hypnotically regressed" to age 7. Before administration of the hypnotic procedures and again after age regression, Ss were tested for eidetic imagery using the random-dot stereograms employed by Walker et al. None of the Ss, including those who were age regressed according to standard criteria and who reported having been eidetikers as children, were successful at the stereogram tasks. Although these results fail to replicate those of Walker et al, they are consistent with the available evidence concerning the performance of children on stereogram tasks. Contrary to the impression conveyed by Walker et al, children tested to date, including those classified as eidetikers by R. N. Haber and R. B. Haber's (1964) criteria, have been unsuccessful at stereogram tasks. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic age regression and the occurrence of transitional object relationships.

Object relations theory and subsequent empirical investigations have established the characteristic ways in which children aged 2–6 yrs utilize transitional objects (e.g., teddy bears or blankets). Three of these characteristics—spontaneity, specificity, and intensity—were used as the primary criteria to investigate the genuineness of hypnotic age regression when Ss were regressed to age 3 and placed in emotional situations typical of those reported clinically. Two groups of college students (16 highly susceptible, as "reals," and 15 low susceptible, as simulators; Ss were administered the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility and a version of the Stanford Profile Scales of Hypnotic Susceptibility) behaved differentially on all 3 measures, with reals behaving in a generally more childlike manner, thus suggesting an effect attributable to the hypnotic condition. Further, the behavior of these Ss was compared to that of 77 children aged 1–6 yrs; reals and children were statistically indistinguishable on the 2 criteria on which they were compared, but simulators differed significantly from both groups. This pattern of results, along with real–simulator differences, suggests a more complete reproduction of an earlier affective process as a function of meaningful hypnotic age regression. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of schemes for recognizing additive and alternative effects in a "natural experiment" context.

20 Ss at each of 4 age levels (4th, 6th, and 8th grade and college) were presented a "natural experiment" problem situation in which they were asked to interpret the more complex situations in which (a) either of 2 alternative variables is sufficient to produce an outcome, or (b) 2 variables are additive in their effect on an outcome. Not until adolescence could Ss isolate alternative or additive causes in a multivariable situation, though it is speculated they may comprehend the concept of alternative causes well before this age. Only 65% of college Ss exhibited correct reasoning in one or both situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, reporting bias, and suggested negative hallucinations.

Examined the role of reporting bias in hypnotic negative hallucinations by using a paradigm in which reporting bias was assessed independently of perceptual change. In Exp 1, highly hypnotizable Ss reported significant loudness reductions when tested for hypnotic deafness. Later, however, these Ss biased their reported loudness reductions in the absence of perceptual change, and their reporting bias scores were almost as large as their hypnotic deafness reports. Ss also biased their ratings of strategy use. In Exp 2, ratings of blindness given in response to a hypnotic negative visual hallucination suggestion were significantly correlated with reporting bias scores obtained in this paradigm. Although hypnotic blindness and hypnotic deafness correlated significantly, the partial correlation between these variables was nonsignificant when reporting bias scores were statistically controlled. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Involvement in suggestion-related imaginings, experienced involuntariness, and credibility assigned to imaginings in hypnotic subjects.

94 undergraduate hypnotic Ss were administered an arm-catalepsy suggestion. Half were challenged to bend an arm, and half were not. Thus, only the challenged Ss had an objective criterion (arm bending) for determining whether they passed the suggestion. All Ss rated the extent of imaginative involvement, experienced involuntariness, and credibility of imaginings generated by the suggestion. Under both conditions, ratings of imaginative involvement correlated with experienced involuntariness, degree of credibility assigned to imaginings, and hypnotic suggestibility. Findings indicate that the interrelations among the variables assessed were not simply a function of Ss' self-observations that they either passed or failed the catalepsy suggestion. Results also support the contention that imaginative involvement plays an important role in mediating hypnotic suggestibility. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suggested amnesia and disorganized recall in hypnotic and task-motivated subjects.

Submitted 52 undergraduates to task motivation or hypnotic treatment. Ss were then given an amnesia suggestion for a previously learned list of categorized words. The number of words recalled and the extent to which they were recalled in clusters were compared before, during, and after lifting the amnesia suggestion. Results show that more hypnotic Ss than task-motivated Ss showed amnesia. Furthermore, hypnotic Ss, but not task-motivated Ss, showed less clustering during the suggestion than they did before or after the suggestion. The Ss who showed at least partial failure to recall during the suggestion were classified into 3 groups: (a) those who remembered but did not verbalize the words, (b) those who experienced amnesia as an effortful process involving distraction or forceful suppression, and (c) those who simply relaxed and experienced amnesia as an effortless process. A theoretical model is tentatively advanced to account for these data. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic amnesia as a strategic enactment: Breaching amnesia in highly susceptible subjects.

Proposes that hypnotically amnesic Ss maintain control over their memory processes but often fail to breach amnesia because to do so would conflict with their self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. Two experiments, with 16 undergraduates, demonstrated that highly susceptible hypnotically amnesic Ss could be easily induced to recall all of the "forgotten" target items by defining successful recall as supportive of rather than as inconsistent with a self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. In the 1st part of Exp I, all Ss showed amnesia despite repeated demands to recall honestly. In the 2nd part of Exp I, Ss were led to believe that they possessed a "hidden part" to their mind that remained aware of the target items covered by the amnesia suggestion. Each S recalled all of the forgotten items when the experimenter contacted their hidden part. Exp II replicated this effect and also demonstrated that the characteristics of Ss' hidden reports were a function of the instructions they received and did not reflect the operation of a dissociated cognitive subsystem that subconsciously held the forgotten items. Findings are inconsistent with traditional theorizing about hypnosis, but offer strong support for the hypothesis that hypnotic amnesia is a strategic enactment under the S's voluntary control. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive change through hypnosis: The interface between cognitive therapy and hypnotherapy.

Cognitive changes are characteristic for the hypnotic state. Two models of experimental hypnosis are discussed from the point of view of their cognitive aspects: E. R. Hilgard's (1977) neo-dissociation model and the cognitive-behavioral model. Some neuropsychological data are described which support the notion that high and low hypnotizable Ss differ in cognitive style. Three hypnotherapeutic strategies (symptom reduction, ego strengthening, and exploration) are discussed, and hypnosis is concluded to be a suitable method for achieving coping and integration in a step-by-step manner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The child's conception of intending act and consequence.

Investigated the distinction between intending an act and intending a consequence of the act using 25 children at each of 3 age levels: 5, 7, and 9 yrs. Ss acted as either the agent, inexperienced observer, or experienced observer in a simple choose and match game. Results indicate that Ss in all 3 roles were almost equally successful in judging intentionality and that they were able to assess the intentions of others as well as they could assess their own. (French abstract) (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)