Computerized psychological testing: Overview and critique.

We present an overview and a critique of computerized psychological testing and assessment. Emphasis is placed on describing computer testing systems currently in place, discussing considerations (factors) in developing a computerized psychological testing system, examining the research on potential benefits and problems associated with computerized psychological testing, and discussing the need for the adoption of a set of guidelines, both scientific and ethical, for computerized psychological testing. We conclude that computerized psychological testing systems have the potential of being practical, cost-effective, and psychometrically sound means of assessing individuals. The potential of computerized psychological testing can be realized if proper considerations are made in designing, developing, and implementing these testing systems, and if professional standards (guidelines) are adhered to by computer test service providers and users. Before the adoption of computerized psychological testing becomes widespread, a number of serious issues deserve the attention of professionals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological testing at the end of the millenium: A brief historical review.

The author presents a brief historical overview of the origins of psychological testing 100 years ago and its continuing development. Special emphasis is placed on test administration and test standardization procedures. The author also illustrates how short-term immediate social needs have stimulated innovation and long-term development. Accommodation to test-taker differences has been a long-standing technical detail, and the development and refinement of group testing procedures has been critical to large-scale use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Thelma Hunt (1903–1992): Obituary.

Discusses the life work of T. Hunt, a pioneer woman in psychology and an authority on psychological testing and test construction. She had many firsts as an innovator in test construction (including social intelligence tests and nursing aptitude tests) and as an early practitioner in providing psychological services to the public and to governmental agencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the use and misuse of psychological testing in child custody evaluations.

Examined the use of psychological testing in child custody and visitation disputes. It is argued that although psychological testing can play an important role in custody and visitation evaluations, psychologists routinely misuse test data in this type of forensic case. Possible reasons for the misuse of test data are explored in terms of the assumptions and motives of both legal and mental health professionals. Alternatives to traditional psychological testing in custody and visitation cases are examined. Finally, guidelines for responsible and ethical use of psychological testing in custody evaluations are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Several parameters of the state of the nervous, immune and endocrine systems in newborn rats exposed to irradiation during the preimplantation period of embryogenesis]

About a decade ago the introduction of predictive testing for Huntington's disease (HD) was an important milestone in medical history. The aim of the present paper concerning predictive DNA-testing for HD is fourfold. First of all it describes the professional challenge of elaborating an adequate test protocol and of permanently using a multidisciplinary approach to deal with predictive test requests. Secondly the paper is aimed at unraveling the factors that play a part in uptake and decision making regarding predictive testing. Hereby the Health Belief Model is used as a framework for understanding differences between tested and untested persons. Thirdly the impact of the test result on psychological well-being is reviewed. Finally this paper assesses the utilisation of prenatal diagnosis after predictive testing for HD and reflects on the psychological and ethical implications of different types of prenatal tests, including preimplantation genetic diagnosis.     

Attitudes of neurologists, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists towards predictive testing for Huntington's disease in Germany

Predictive testing for Huntington's disease (HD) in Germany is performed by genetic counsellors, neurologists, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists. In order to evaluate the attitudes of neurologists, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists in Germany towards predictive testing for HD, a postal questionnaire was sent to this group. Two German Bundesl?nder were chosen, Baden Württemberg (BW) and Niedersachsen (NS). Of 469 persons interviewed the response rate was 32.6%. The questionnaire consisted of 17 items assessing sociodemographic data, acquaintance with HD patients, lay organisations, attitudes towards genetic counselling, presymptomatic and prenatal DNA testing, and reproduction of persons at risk for HD. More than 70% of the subjects were well informed about predictive DNA testing but knowledge about the details of the test procedure, especially the World Federation of Neurology (WFN) and International Huntington Association (IHA)1 recommendations, was quite low (11.8%). Nevertheless, the majority would recommend predictive testing for HD although they anticipated problems for the probands. The majority of our respondents favoured psychological test and post-test counselling for those tested. Concerning reproduction, most subjects favoured prenatal testing or that persons at risk should refrain from having children. We found that the opinions of practitioners and at risk persons differed with respect to the predictive DNA test and, particularly, to prenatal testing. Therefore the testing procedure could be improved if practitioners were better informed about the DNA test in general and about the attitudes and wishes of their patients.     

The 1965 Congressional Inquiry into Testing: A Commentary.

The editorial advisors of the American Psychological Association has published the current issue of the American Psychologist to inform APA membership as fully as possible of the nature of the current attacks upon psychological testing and selection procedures. The attacks upon psychological testing and upon psychologist-guided selection methods reached a new height in 1965, climaxing in Congressional investigations by Senate and House Committees, accompanied by directives from the Executive side of the Government banning or restricting the uses of psychological instruments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new look at psychological testing: Psychological testing from the standpoint of a behaviorist: Reply.

Suggests that J. Greenspoon and C. D. Gersten's (see record 1968-00067-001) critique of psychological testing emphasizes a behavioral perspective without regard to relevant realities. The communication of test results and their implications to allied hospital personnel, the behavioral vs psychodynamic orientation of practitioners, and the relation of test behaviors to extra-test situations are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of coping style and BRCA1 and BRCA2 test results on anxiety among women participating in genetic counseling and testing for breast and ovarian cancer risk.

Using the monitoring process model (MPM), the authors examined the immediate effects of coping style and test results on the psychological distress of women at increased risk for breast and/or ovarian cancers. Cases selected for analysis were 107 probands and relatives of positive probands participating in genetic counseling and testing for heritable cancer risk. Specifically, the authors explored the relationships among coping style (high and low monitoring), test results (BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carrier and noncarrier status), and psychological distress (state anxiety). Consistent with the MPM, higher monitoring was associated with greater psychological distress while anticipating genetic test results. After test results were disclosed, greater distress was associated with testing positive for a mutation. The implications of the findings for breast and ovarian cancer patients are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bioethics for clinicians: 14. Ethics and genetics in medicine

Information about a patient's inherited risk of disease has important ethical and legal implications in clinical practice. Because genetic information is by nature highly personal yet familial, issues of confidentiality arise. Counselling and informed consent before testing are important in view of the social and psychological risks that accompany testing, the complexity of information surrounding testing, and the fact that effective interventions are often not available. Follow-up counselling is also important to help patients integrate test results into their lives and the lives of their relatives. Genetic counselling should be provided by practitioners who have up-to-date knowledge of the genetics of and the tests available for specific diseases, are aware of the social and psychological risks associated with testing, and are able to provide appropriate clinical follow-up. Some physicians may elect to refer patients for genetic counselling and testing. However, it is inevitable that all physicians will be involved in long-term follow-up both by monitoring for disease and by supporting the integration of genetic information into patients' lives.     

Opt-out testing for stigmatized diseases: A social psychological approach to understanding the potential effect of recommendations for routine HIV testing.

Objective: Little research has studied experimentally whether an opt-out policy will increase testing rates or whether this strategy is especially effective in the case of stigmatized diseases such as HIV. Design and Main Outcome Measures: In Study 1, a 2 × 2 factorial design asked participants to make moral judgments about a person’s decision to test for stigmatized diseases under an opt-in versus an opt-out policy. In Study 2, a 2 × 2 factorial design measuring testing rates explored whether opt-out methods reduce stigma and increase testing for stigmatized diseases. Results: Study 1 results suggest that getting tested draws suspicion regarding moral conduct in an opt-in system, whereas not getting tested draws suspicion in an opt-out system. Study 2 results suggest that an opt-out policy may increase testing rates for stigmatized diseases and lessen the effects of stigma in people’s reluctance to test. Discussion: A social psychological approach to health services can be used to show how testing policies can influence both the stigmatization associated with testing and participation rates. An understanding of how testing policies may affect patient decision making and behavior is imperative for creating effective testing policies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validity versus volume: On taking tests at home.

Describes two cases in which psychological tests, the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), respectively, were completed by counselees/patients at home and suggests that this practice raises issues about both test validity and testing ethics. (0 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Probing three-way interactions in moderated multiple regression: Development and application of a slope difference test.

Researchers often use 3-way interactions in moderated multiple regression analysis to test the joint effect of 3 independent variables on a dependent variable. However, further probing of significant interaction terms varies considerably and is sometimes error prone. The authors developed a significance test for slope differences in 3-way interactions and illustrate its importance for testing psychological hypotheses. Monte Carlo simulations revealed that sample size, magnitude of the slope difference, and data reliability affected test power. Application of the test to published data yielded detection of some slope differences that were undetected by alternative probing techniques and led to changes of results and conclusions. The authors conclude by discussing the test's applicability for psychological research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a process-focused model of test score validity: Improving psychological assessment in science and practice.

Although definitions of validity have evolved considerably since L. J. Cronbach and P. E. Meehl's classic (1955) review, contemporary validity research continues to emphasize correlational analyses assessing predictor–criterion relationships, with most outcome criteria being self-reports. The present article describes an alternative way of operationalizing validity—the process-focused (PF) model. The PF model conceptualizes validity as the degree to which respondents can be shown to engage in a predictable set of psychological processes during testing, with those processes dictated a priori by the nature of the instrument(s) used and the context in which testing takes place. In contrast to the traditional approach wherein correlational methods are used to quantify the relationship between test score and criterion, the PF model uses experimental methods to manipulate variables that moderate test score–criterion relationships, enabling researchers to draw more definitive conclusions regarding the impact of underlying psychological processes on test scores. By complementing outcome-based validity assessment with a process-driven approach, researchers will not only improve psychology's assessment procedures but also enhance their understanding of test bias and test score misuse by illuminating the intra- and interpersonal factors that lead to differential performance (and differential prediction) in different groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Computerized interpretation: Additional issues concerning ethics, standards, and regulation of practice.

Extends J. D. Matarazzo's (see record 1986-19878-001) discussion of computerized clinical psychological testing by discussing legal and licensing considerations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An empirical survey on psychological testing and the use of the term psychological: Turf battles or clinical necessity?

The issue of who, in addition to psychologists, is actually qualified to administer, score, and interpret psychological testing has been a matter of ongoing debate for decades. With the advent of licensing laws for other mental health professionals (e.g., professional counselors, marriage and family therapists, social workers), many professionals now contend that their laws permit them to utilize psychological testing, provided that they have the appropriate training and experience. This article presents a discussion of the issue of psychological testing as well as the adjoining issue of who is permitted to use terms such as psychologist and psychological. The results of a survey that was conducted, to which a response was received by every psychology licensing board in the United States and Canada, indicate that of all 62 jurisdictions, 61 restrict the use of the terms psychologist and psychological to those who hold a valid license to practice psychology. Of the total sample polled, 67.2% indicated that their jurisdiction prohibits other licensed professionals from conducting psychological testing. A discussion section highlights some of the exceptions, along with the dilemmas and future concerns regarding this topic and potential remedies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Invariance in measurement and prediction: Their relationship in the single-factor case.

Two forms of bias in psychological measurement are often distinguished. Predictive bias concerns systematic inaccuracies in predictions based on a test. Measurement bias concerns systematic inaccuracies in the information provided by a test about the latent variable or variables to be measured. Although both forms of bias are important, their relationship has not been clearly described in the literature. Their relationship is here described under a single-factor model for the predictor battery and the criterion. Several theorems establish the general inconsistency between factorial invariance and slope invariance (i.e., invariance of regression slopes). Predictor-criterion sets that are factorially invariant are not slope invariant under realistic conditions. The implications of this inconsistency for research on Spearman's "g" in employment testing, and for the general study of test bias, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to predictive testing in Huntington disease: case reports of coping with a new genetic status

A predictive testing program for Huntington disease has been available in Stockholm, Sweden since October 1990. Psychosocial assessments were performed throughout the testing program to evaluate the impact of the risk situation itself and the effect of predictive testing, and to identify those individuals who were most vulnerable to severe stress and anxiety reactions. All subjects underwent neurological, neuropsychological, and psychiatric examinations. Individuals undergoing predictive testing were assessed twice by a genetic counsellor before receiving their results, and at 10 days (gene carriers only) and then 2, 6, 12, and 24 months after receiving the results. The process of coping with the test results and the psychological adjustment to knowledge about new genetic status have been shown to vary considerably. In this report, we describe the results obtained from two gene carriers and two noncarriers. The four persons chosen represent different ways of coping with the outcome of the test and of integrating knowledge about their genetic status into everyday life. These cases illustrate common themes and recurrent problems often surfacing during the counselling and testing process. The longitudinal evaluations provide information about the impact, adaptation, and long-term effects of living with a new genetic status.