Ocean surface wind speed measurements of the Special SensorMicrowave/Imager (SSM/I)

An operational wind speed algorithm was developed. This algorithm is based on the D-matrix approach, which seeks a linear relationship between measured SSM/I brightness temperatures and environmental parameters. D-matrix performance in the low-to-medium wind speed range was validated by comparing algorithm-derived wind speeds with near-simultaneous and colocated measurements made by the anemometers of offshore ocean buoys. Results indicate that for approximately 85% of the time, the D-matrix-retrieved winds will have an accuracy better than the Defense Meteorological Space Program goal of ±2 m/s. For the remaining 15% of the time, the scene will be rain-flagged and retrieval accuracies will be worse than ±2 m/s     

Land surface temperature derived from the SSM/I passive microwavebrightness temperatures

Passive microwave brightness temperatures from the Defense Meteorological Space Program Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) were used to determine surface temperature over land areas in the central plains of the United States. A regression analysis comparing all of the SSM/I channels and minimum screen air temperatures (representing the surface temperature) showed good correlations, with root-mean-square errors of 2-3 degC. Pixels containing large amounts of water, snow, and falling rain, as classified with SSM/I brightness temperatures, were excluded from the analysis. The use of independent ground truth data such as soil moisture or land surface type was not required to obtain the correlations between brightness temperatures and surface temperatures     

基于北斗卫星反射信号的海面风速探测

通过研究北斗反射信号与海洋状态的关系,在岸基条件下提出一种利用反射信号一维时延功率谱面积间接计算海面风速的方法,并对威海岸基试验的数据进行处理和分析。通过分析不同阈值下的功率谱面积与有效波高(SWH)的相关系数大小,设定合适的功率谱阈值,建立功率谱面积与有效波高的经验关系,同时利用数据拟合建立有效波高与海面风速的关系。通过与海洋站同比风速的对比,反演风速的均方根误差为2.10 m/s,两者具有很好的一致性,验证了此方法的可行性。     

SSM/I instrument evaluation

The Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) instrument and scan geometry are briefly described. The results of investigations of the stability of the gain, calibration targets and spin rate, the radiometer noise and sensitivity, the coregistration, the beam width and main-beam efficiency of the antenna beams, and the absolute calibration and geolocation of the instrument are presented. The results of this effort demonstrate that the SSM/I is a stable, sensitive, and well-calibrated microwave radiometric system capable of providing accurate brightness temperatures for microwave images of the Earth and for use by environmental product retrieval algorithms. It is predicted that this SSM/I and the 11 future ones currently built or to be built will provide high-performance microwave measurements for determination of global weather and critical atmospheric, oceanographic, and land parameters to operational forecasters and users and the research community for the next two decades     

基于DSP的超声波式风速风向检测仪的设计

超声波测风技术具有非接触、精度高、测量范围广以及安装方便等优点,适用于煤矿井下风道检测、工业危险气体检测等。基于超声波时差原理,设计了一种基于DSP的芯片的超声波式风速风向检测仪。对顺流、逆流超声波信号采用相关函数法及频域变换处理方法,消除环境白噪声的影响,提高了时间差的测量精度和处理器运算速度。对环境温度造成的误差进行修正,实现风速测量范围0~25 m,误差小于0.2 m/s,并实现巷道中正反两向风向测量。通过大量实验和测试,该风速风向检测仪具有较高的精度和稳定度。     

Retrieving ocean surface wind speed from the TRMM Precipitation Radar measurements

Spaceborne scatterometery has been used for many years now to retrieve the ocean surface wind field from normalized radar cross-section measurements of the ocean surface. Though designed specifically for the measurement of precipitation profiles in the atmosphere, the Precipitation Radar (PR) of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) also acquires surface backscattering measurements of the global oceans. As such, this instrument provides an interesting opportunity to explore the benefits and pitfalls of alternative radar configurations in the satellite remote sensing of ocean winds. In this paper, a technique was developed for retrieving ocean surface winds using surface backscattering measurements from the TRMM PR. The wind retrieval algorithm developed for TRMM PR makes use of a maximum-likelihood estimation technique to compensate for the low backscattering associated with the PR configuration. The high vertical resolution of the PR serves to filter-out rain-contaminated cells normally integrated into Ku-band scatterometer measurements. The algorithm was validated through comparisons of ocean surface wind speeds derived from PR with remotely measured winds from TMI and QuikSCAT, as well as in situ observations from oceanographic buoys, revealing good agreements in wind speed estimations.     

Determination of oceanic total precipitable water from the SSM/I

Results are presented of calibration/validation studies showing the ability of the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) to measure total precipitable water in the atmosphere over the ocean. Comparisons between radiosondes and the SSM/I are presented for three different algorithms. The results show the possibility of a distinct improvement in the retrieval of total precipitable water over the ocean. The global, nonlinear algorithm is more sensitive to cloud liquid water content, rain, and sea ice. The additional sensitivity is due to the screening of rain and sea ice from the dependent data and the squared term in the retrieval algorithm. Thus, it will be very important to have good screening procedures for identifying these conditions. The linear algorithm overestimates in the mid-range and underestimates at large values of total precipitable water. The explanation for this effect is probably related to the selection of the center of the water vapor line as the operating frequency of the SSM/I water vapor channel. The line center is most likely to exhibit a saturation effect at large water vapor amounts, and pressure and temperature effects can also be important, depending on the distribution of water vapor in the atmosphere     

A contrast and comparison of near-sea surface airtemperature/humidity from GMS and SSM/I data with an improved algorithm

With data sets gained from Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) microwave channels, Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS-5) infrared channels, and ship-measured data, the statistical algorithms to estimate sea surface temperature and near-sea surface air humidity around Taiwan and the South China Sea areas are developed. Then a new, improved method to estimate near-sea surface air temperature based on the algorithm proposed by Konda et al. (1996) is established in this study. The results estimated with SSM/I data show that the root mean square error (RMSE) of SST, near-sea surface air humidity and air temperature over the oceans around Taiwan and the South China Sea are 1.2 K,1.43 g/kg, and 1.6 K, respectively. The results with GMS data are 1.7 K,1.71 g/kg and 1.7 K, respectively. The results also show that the improvements in the algorithm of Konda et al. simplify the computation scheme, improve the accuracy, and match the regional ocean-atmosphere properties in retrieving near-sea surface air temperature. The estimate produced using SSM/I and GMS data also show good consistency between them, both in temporal and spatial variations. Basically, the accuracy of this result implies strong potential for application of satellite data to relative studies and operational work in the ocean-atmosphere interaction     

Retrieval of surface temperature in boreal forest zone from SSM/Idata

Novel inversion methods for the retrieval of surface temperature (air temperature at ground level) in forested areas using space-borne multi-channel microwave radiometer data are presented and analyzed. The first technique is an inversion method based on the use of a constrained least squares algorithm for the inversion of a semi-empirical emission model. The other methods discussed are empirical approaches: multiple linear regression and polarization difference formulas. The validity of the inversion method, as well as the feasibility of the empirical approaches, are evaluated in the case of Finnish boreal forests employing SSM/I data. The results show that for conifer dominated boreal forests the surface temperature can be estimated reliably from SSM/I measurements during snow-free conditions. The highest test site-wise determined correlation coefficients (r) between the ground-based reference values (near-surface air temperature) and the SSM/I-based estimates are above 0.97 and the corresponding unbiased rms errors are smaller than 1.3°C. These values were obtained using morning time overpasses of the SSM/I without any data rejection     

Interpretation of SSM/I measurements over Greenland

Multispectral brightness temperature (T_B) measurements over Greenland are obtained from the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I), which are flown aboard the DMSP satellites. This paper examines the different spectral characteristics over Greenland throughout the year. Although snow covers the vast majority of Greenland, the southern regions rarely exhibit the spectral characteristics associated with snowcover (i.e., T_B decreases at higher frequencies). In fact, the SSM/I polarization and frequency measurements over southern Greenland are more indicative of water than a snow-covered surface (i.e., T_B increases at higher frequencies). A simplified physical model is developed to help explain the anomalous measurements over southern Greenland. Model results indicate that high frequency radiation is mainly scattered by snow grains residing above the subsurface ice layers, whereas low frequency radiation is scattered throughout a much greater depth. Since low frequencies are scattered throughout a greater volume, they are depressed relative to high frequencies, and the typical snowcover signature is absent     

Validation of sea ice motion from QuikSCAT with those from SSM/I and buoy

Arctic sea ice motion for the period from October 1999 to March 2000 derived from QuikSCAT and ocean buoy observations.Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) data using the wavelet analysis method agrees well with ocean buoy observations. Results from QuikSCAT and SSM/I are compatible when compared with buoy observations and complement each other. Sea ice drift merged from daily results from QuikSCAT, SSM/I, and buoy data gives more complete coverage of sea ice motion. Based on observations of six months of sea ice motion maps, the sea ice motion maps in the Arctic derived from QuikSCAT data appear to have smoother (less noisy) patterns than those from NSCAT, especially in boundary areas, possibly due to constant radar scanning incidence angle. For late summer, QuikSCAT data can provide good sea ice motion information in the Arctic as early as the beginning of September. For early summer, QuikSCAT can provide at least partial sea ice motion information until mid-June. In the Antarctic, a case study shows that sea ice motion derived from QuikSCAT data is consistent with pressure field contours.     

Spatial resolution enhancement of SSM/I data

One of the limitations in using Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) data for land and vegetation studies is the relatively low-spatial resolution. To ameliorate this limitation, resolution-enhancement algorithms can be applied to the data. In this paper, the Backus-Gilbert inversion (BGI) technique and the scatterometer image-reconstruction (SIR) algorithm are investigated as possible methods for creating enhanced resolution images from SSM/I data. The two algorithms are compared via both the simulation and the actual SSM/I data. The algorithms offer similar resolution enhancement, though SIR requires significantly less computation. Sample results over two land regions of South America are presented     

A technique for enhancing and matching the resolution of microwavemeasurements from the SSM/I instrument

The authors describe and apply a correction technique for matching the resolution of all the frequencies of the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) to the 25-km spatial resolution of the 37-GHz channel. To accomplish this, it is necessary to increase the spatial resolution of the 19- and 22-GHz channels while degrading that of the 85-GHz channel. It is found that the approach produces adequate enhancement of the spatial resolution to make such a correction worthwhile. Results suggest that this technique decreases brightness temperature differences stemming solely from spatial resolution differences by over 50% for the low resolution channels with only a modest increase in random noise. The correction can also help to better resolve small features which would otherwise be lost due to the lack of resolution     

The potential of combining SSM/I and SSM/T2 measurements to improvethe identification of snowcover and precipitation

The potential of passive microwave radiometry for classifying snowcover and precipitation using measurements from the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) and the Special Sensor Microwave Water Vapor Profiler (SSM/T2) is investigated by modelling the radiative transfer for different surface types and atmospheric conditions. The model accounts for various land surfaces and vegetation covers, different snow types as well as wind roughened ocean water. The atmospheric part includes multiple scattering and depolarization by cloud droplets and precipitating water as well as ice spheres. It was found, that the combination of a window channel (91 GHz) and an atmospheric sounding channel (183±7 GHz) can improve the separation of snowcover and precipitation which is difficult by using only SSM/I channels. The 183±7 GHz channel is strongly influenced by the water vapor distribution which makes its use difficult for warm rain cases and low cloud tops. Then, the signature at this frequency is not unique and the above relation gives no further improvement of the classification. However, the identification of rainfall over cold land backgrounds can be significantly improved, which is illustrated by the application of a combined SSM/I-SSM/T2 algorithm to two satellite datasets when compared to the SSM/I algorithm and to operational surface weather maps     

Global identification of snowcover using SSM/I measurements

Visible satellite sensors have monitored snowcover throughout the Northern Hemisphere for almost thirty years. These sensors can detect snowcover during daylight, cloud-free conditions. The operational procedure developed by NOAA/NESDIS requires an analyst to manually view the images in order to subjectively distinguish between clouds and snowcover. Because this procedure is manually intensive, it is only performed weekly. Since microwave sensors see through nonprecipitating clouds, snowcover can be determined objectively without the intervention of an analyst. Furthermore, microwave sensors can provide daily analysis of snowcover in real-time, which is essential for operational forecast models and regional hydrologic monitoring. Snowcover measurements are obtained from the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I), flown aboard the DMSP satellites. A decision tree, containing various filters, is used to separate the scattering signature of snowcover from other scattering signatures. Problem areas are discussed and when possible, a filter is developed to eliminate biases. The finalized decision tree is an objective algorithm to monitor the global distribution of snowcover. Comparisons are made between the SSM/I snowcover product and the NOAA/NESDIS subjectively analyzed weekly product     

Determination of cloud liquid water content using the SSM/I

As part of a calibration/validation effort for the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I), coincident observations of SSM/I brightness temperatures and surface-based observations of cloud liquid water were obtained. These observations were used to validate initial algorithms and to derive an improved algorithm. The initial algorithms were divided into latitudinal-, seasonal-, and surface-type zones. It was found that these initial algorithms, which were of the D-matrix type, did not yield sufficiently accurate results. The surface-based measurements of channels were investigated; however, the 85 V channel was excluded because of excessive noise. It was found that there is no significant correlation between the SSM/I brightness temperatures and the surface-based cloud liquid water determination when the background surface is land or snow. A high correlation was found between brightness temperatures and ground-based measurements over the ocean     

Metamorphic signature of snow revealed in SSM/I measurements

Brightness temperatures (19, 22, 37, 85 GHz) measured by the special sensor microwave/imager (SSM/I) are analyzed using data from the snow monitoring network within the former Soviet Union during the 1987-1988 winter period. It is shown that in the beginning of winter, the SSM/I measurements display the classical snow scattering signature, i.e., the brightness temperatures decrease with increasing depth, and the largest decrease occurs at the highest frequency. Dramatic deviations from this pattern are observed in the middle of winter, where the brightness temperature approaches a minimum and then begins to increase despite the fact that the snow depth remains constant or continues to grow. The two-stream radiative transfer model is combined with results from dense media theory to help explain the phenomenon. Model results suggest that the increase in brightness temperature is due to a decrease of the single scattering albedo as the snowpack ages. This decrease of the albedo is related to changes in the snow crystalline structure due to metamorphism. Consequences for the interpretation of satellite measurements and development of algorithms for deriving snow water equivalent are discussed     

Short pulse radar used to measure sea surface wind speed and SWH

A joint airborne measurement program is being pursued by NRL and NASA Wallops Flight Center to determine the extent to which wind speed and sea surface significant wave height (SWH) can be measured quantitatively and remotely with a short pulse (2 ns), wide-beam (60deg), nadir-looking 3-cm radar. The concept involves relative power measurements only and does not need a scanning antenna, doppler filters, or absolute power calibration. The slopes of the leading and trailing edges of the averaged received power for the pulse limited altimeter are used to infer SWH and surface wind speed. The interpretation is based on theoretical models of the effects of SWH on the leading edge shape and rms sea-surface slope on the trailing, edge shape. The models include the radar system parameters of antenna beam width and pulsewidth. Preliminary experimental results look promising and indicate that it may be possible to design a relatively compact airborne radar to infer, in real-time, the sea surface SWH and surface wind speed.     

基于支持向量机的粗糙海面风速及海表盐度反演研究

将支持向量机(Support Vector Machine, SVM)回归技术应用到海况参数(如海表盐度、海面风速等)反演研究.利用双尺度模型(Two-Scale Model, TSM)作为前向电磁算法, 数值模拟不同雷达参数下风驱粗糙海面微波后向散射系数, 经过敏感性分析, 选取L波段(1.4 GHz)、C波段(6.8 GHz)及其合适的入射角作为雷达参数, 并设计多种反演方案, 分别以单频率双极化双角度、双频率双极化双角度及双极化后向散射系数的比值作为SVM的训练样本数据信息, 经过适当的训练, 利用SVM回归技术对海洋表面风速和盐度进行了反演研究.研究结果表明, 针对于海面风速的反演, C波段的反演精度最高, 针对于海表盐度的反演, L波段同极化散射系数比值作为SVM输入的反演精度较高.最后, 检验了SVM反演方法的抗噪声性能, 表明文中提出的SVM方法能较好地应用于实际海况参数反演问题.     

Microwave radiometric determination of wind speed at the surface of the ocean during BESEX

Microwave radiometric measurements were made at wavelengths ranging from 0.8 to 2.8 cm at altitudes from 0.16 to 11 km under well documented meteorological conditions over the Bering Sea. It is shown that determinations of wind speed at the ocean surface and liquid water content of the clouds may be made from such data. Determinations were made from two simultaneous but independent sets of radiometric measurements. The wind speeds and liquid water contents made from these two sets showed remarkable agreement. Independent estimates of these parameters made from in situ measurements showed reasonable agreement as well.