Improvement of the reflood model of RELAP5/MOD3.3 based on the assessments against FLECHT-SEASET tests

The reflood model of RELAP5/MOD3.3 was assessed using eight carefully selected FLECHT-SEASET tests. Comparisons of calculated and measured peak cladding temperatures and quench times indicate that the code predicts peak cladding temperatures relatively well. However, rod quenches were predicted to occur too early.To improve the predictability for quench times, we carefully reviewed and modified the wall-to-fluid heat transfer models. The film boiling heat transfer regime was divided into three different sub-regimes, and appropriate correlations were selected for the wall-to-fluid heat transfer coefficients in each sub-regime. We modified also the wall-to-liquid radiation heat transfer model including the method for determining the droplet diameter and we corrected two minor coding errors existing in the original version. After the modifications, the same set of eight FLECHT-SEASET tests was simulated again to compare the newly predicted cladding temperatures, quench times and heat transfer coefficients with those predicted using the original version. The modifications employed in this study improve the code's predictability not only for quench times but also for peak clad temperatures. The modifications reduced the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) error in the prediction of peak clad temperatures and quench times from 48.3 to 36.1 K and 85.9 to 33.2 s, respectively.     

环形燃料棒束再淹没行为实验研究

环形燃料是一种可在维持或提升安全裕度的前提下大幅提高反应堆经济效益的新型压水堆燃料,由于其双面冷却的特点,环形燃料在LOCA再淹没阶段的热工水力行为与传统实心燃料存在显著差异。现有关于环形燃料再淹没行为的实验研究鲜有报道。本研究基于自主设计的高温环形电加热棒建立了环形棒束再淹没实验装置,开展了3×3环形棒束底部再淹没实验研究,探究了环形棒束再淹没典型物理过程及不同工况下再淹没关键参数的变化规律。结果表明,环形棒束再淹没物理过程与传统实心棒束类似,且内外通道的骤冷前沿推进和传热模式变化趋于同步。在同一时刻下,环形棒内外壁面间存在温度梯度。骤冷前沿推进速度随再淹没速度和过冷度的增大而增大,随峰值包壳温度和线功率密度的增大而减小。此外,定位格架在低流速、低过冷度与高壁温工况下能显著提升下游的骤冷前沿推进速度。     

LOCA analysis of reactor cores with tight lattice using the modified RELAP5 code

The previous paper analyzed the reflooding phase of reactor cores with tight lattice. Models calculating the wall to fluid heat transfer in the precursory cooling region and in the vicinity of the quench front were developed and validated in the previous paper (Wu et al., 2012). In this paper, these newly developed models were used to modify RELAP5/MOD3.2 in order to make the code be suitable for tight lattice. Besides, minor modifications to the wall friction model and bubbly-slug interfacial drag model were done. Then the newly developed code RELAP5/MOD3.2/TIGHT was used to analyze the LOCA transients of conceptually designed reactor cores with three types of tight lattice. The results showed that the peak cladding temperatures in the reflooding phase are much higher than that in the blow-down phase. Through comparison between the calculation results of LOCA transients of the three types of tight lattice, it was found that with smaller pitch to diameter ratio, the peak cladding temperature was much higher. LPIS injection flow rate should be increased in order to keep the rod cladding temperature be within the LOCA criteria. Steam generation will prevent the coolant from flowing downstream of the channel in reactor cores with a very small flow area. From the reactor safety aspect and the economic aspect, we do not recommend that reactor cores be designed with p/d ratio less than 1.10.     

Experimental observation of the droplet size change across a wet grid spacer in a 6 × 6 rod bundle

During the reflood phase of a postulated loss of coolant accident in a nuclear reactor, entrainment of liquid droplets can occur at a quench front of reflooding water. It is widely recognized that the behavior of the entrained droplets crucially affects the reflood heat transfer phenomena by decreasing the superheated steam temperature and interacting with a rod bundle and spacer grids. For this reason, various experimental and numerical studies have been performed to examine droplet behavior such as the droplet size, velocity and droplet fraction inside a rod array. In this study, an experiment on the droplet behavior inside a heated rod bundle has been performed. The experiment was focused on the change of droplet size induced by a spacer grid in a rod bundle geometry, which results in the change of the interfacial heat transfer between droplets and superheated steam. A 6 × 6 rod bundle test facility in Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute was used for the experiment. Steam was supplied by an external boiler into the bottom of the test channel, and a droplet injection nozzle was equipped instead of simulating a quench front of reflooding water. The major measuring parameters of the experiment were the droplet size and velocity, which were measured by a high-speed camera and a digital image processing technique. A series of experiments were conducted with various flow conditions of a steam injection velocity, heater temperature, droplet size, and droplet flow rate. The experiments provided the data on the change of the Sauter mean diameter of droplets after collision with a wet grid spacer depending on flow conditions.     

Modelling of PWR cladding corrosion in mixed core situations

In this paper a thermal-hydraulic model for cladding corrosion recently developed in ABB Atom and used in the code is presented. The features of the model are a subchannel geometry which consists of a 3 × 3 matrix of rods, and modelling of coolant cross-flow and coolant enthalpy mixing. The thermal-hydraulic model is benchmarked against the code, which is a 3D code for analysing the thermalhydraulics of a reactor core. In addition, results of model calculations are compared with corrosion data obtained in mixed core situations, i.e. situations where the fuel assemblies in the core have different designs (e.g. different grid and nozzle designs). Fuel assembly components in assemblies of different designs usually have unequal flow resistances. These differences result in transverse pressure gradients, which in turn increase the lateral flow velocity and thus affect the cociant mass flow rate distribution. Two different situations where this type of mismatch between fuel assemblies in the Ringhals 3 core have occurred are studied in this paper. In the first case a reload batch of fuel assemblies, with Zircaloy mixing vane grids, inserted in a core where the resident fuel assemblies have Inconel mixing vane grids is considered. In the second case cladding tubes from the same manufacturing lot that have been irradiated for the same period of time but have been situated in fuel assemblies with Zircaloy mixing vane grids of different designs are considered. The results manifest the capability of the code to model the effects of flow resistance on cladding corrosion.     

Modifications to COBRA-TF to model dispersed flow film boiling with two flow,four field Eulerian–Eulerian approach – Part 1

In the case of a postulated loss of coolant accident (LOCA) in a nuclear reactor, an accurate prediction of clad temperature is needed to determine the safety margins. During the reflood phase of the LOCA, when the local void fraction is greater than 80% with the wall temperature above minimum film boiling temperature (T_min), the heat transfer process is dispersed flow film boiling (DFFB). This study has been performed to model DFFB in the reflood phase of a LOCA in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) rod bundle. The COBRA-TF computer code is utilized, since it has a detailed reflood package which takes into account the effect of spacer grids on the local heat transfer. The COBRA-TF code has also been improved to include a four field Eulerian–Eulerian modeling for the two-phase dispersed flow film boiling heat transfer regime. The modifications include adding a small droplet field to COBRA-TF as the fourth field. In addition, the spacer grid models of COBRA-TF have been revised and modified. In the first part of the paper, the results of the code predictions are presented by comparing the experimental data from rod bundle heat transfer (RBHT) experiments with the results of code simulations performed with original and modified code. Measurements and calculations for the heater rod, vapor temperatures and quench front progression have been compared and the results are described in detail. The results of the analysis performed with the modified code indicate the improvement in code predictions for the rod surface temperature, vapor temperature and quench front behavior. The results also indicate the need for improvement in the entrainment and interfacial drag models for the drop fields. The effects of spacer grids on the heat transfer, the models improved and developed for spacer grids and the results of the code calculations with these models are described in the part 2 of the paper.     

CFD analysis on subcooled boiling phenomena in PWR coolant channel

Eulerian two-fluid model coupled with wall boiling model was employed to calculate the three dimensional flow field and heat transfer characteristics in a hot channel with vaned spacer grid in PWR. The heat transfer from pellet-gap-cladding to coolant was also taken into account by a system coupled code MpCCI. The wall boiling model utilized in this study was validated by Bartolomei experiment data, and a good agreement can be observed. By solving the governing equation in a two-way coupled method, the distribution of temperature in the pellet-gap-cladding region and the distribution of temperature, void fraction and velocity of two-phase flow in coolant channel can be obtained. The influences of spacer grid and mixing vane on the thermal-hydraulic characteristics were analyzed. The heat transfer capacity was strongly improved by the spacer grid and mixing vane, while the flow resistance was also enlarged. Localized volume fraction of vapor phase decreased due to mixing vane, which will decrease the possibility of the departure from nucleate boiling (DNB) and increase the critical heat flux (CHF). By analyzing the temperature and void fraction at cladding outer surface, the critical regions where hot spot may occur were determined.     

Numerical simulation of AP1000 LBLOCA with SCDAP/RELAP 4.0 code

The risk of large-break loss of coolant accident (LBLOCA) is that core will be exposed once the accident occurs, and may cause core damages. New phenomena may occur in LBLOCA due to passive safety injection adopted by AP1000. This paper used SCDAP/RELAP5 4.0 to build the numerical model of AP1000 and double-end guillotine of cold leg is simulated. Reactor coolant system and passive core cooling system were modeled by RELAP5 modular. HEAT STRUCTURE component of RELAP5 was used to simulate the fuel rod. The reflood option in RELAP5 was chosen to be activated or not to study the effect of axial heat conduction. Results show that the axial heat conduction plays an important role in the reflooding phase and can effectively shorten reflood process. An alternative core model is built by SCDAP modular. It is found that the SCDAP model predicts higher maximum peak cladding temperature and longer reflood process than RELAP5 model. Analysis shows that clad oxidation heat plays a key role in the reflood. From the simulation results, it can be concluded that the cladding will keep intact and fission product will not be released from fuel to coolant in LBLOCA.     

棒束通道定位格架沸腾临界特性数值研究

为研究核反应堆中定位格架及搅混翼对沸腾临界现象产生的影响,本文采用计算流体动力学（CFD）分析方法,探讨了棒束通道中定位格架的数目、位置和搅混翼的角度对于沸腾临界现象的影响。结果表明:定位格架会对主流流动产生阻力,同时定位格架数目越多,沸腾临界发生的温度也越高,但将定位格架布置在沸腾临界发生位置时,则可有效改善壁面传热环境并降低沸腾临界发生时的峰值温度。搅混翼的存在则会有效降低加热面附近空泡份额,改善传热环境,但搅混翼角度过大时会导致沸腾临界提前发生。      

A separate effect test on the cooling behavior in a pressurized water reactor core under a low reflooding rate condition by using ATLAS and RELAP5/MOD3.3 code assessment

A separate effect test was performed on the cooling behavior in a PWR core under a low reflooding rate condition by using the ATLAS (Advanced Thermal–Hydraulic Test Loop for Accident Simulation) which is a thermal–hydraulic integral effect test facility for the pressurized water reactors APR1400 and OPR1000. Although several integral tests for the reflood phase of a large break loss of coolant accident (LBLOCA) of APR1400 have been performed with the ATLAS, the previous integral effect tests for the reflood phase of a LBLOCA are not easily simulated by existing codes, such as the RELAP5/MOD3, due to a unique phenomena in ATLAS, that resulted from an injection of large amount of subcooled water onto the heated wall of which temperature was higher than the target value.     

基于RELAP5的高温棒束通道再淹没数值模拟研究

基于ABB Atom 3×3棒束再淹没实验,运用RELAP5建立其实验装置的定流量再淹没计算模型,通过与实验结果做比对验证模拟的有效性,研究在高、低两种注水流量下从底部再淹没高温棒束通道时的不同骤冷现象,分析期间的流动形态、传热特性,液位进程,先驱冷却效果差异等。模拟结果表明:低流量下主液位落后于骤冷前沿,高流量下骤冷前沿明显落后于主液位;通过对比发现在高流量下的高液位为高温壁面带来更强的先驱冷却,使壁面温度更快的降到再湿温度,而低流量下几乎匀速上升的液位变化进程对前沿下游的高温壁面冷却较慢,需要更长的时间才能降到再湿温度。这些分析将为研究此模型下的重力注水打下坚实的基础。     

Major findings from LBLOCA reflood tests using the ATLAS facility

A set of LBLOCA (large-break loss of coolant accident) reflood tests was performed in the first phase of the ATLAS (advanced thermal-hydraulic test loop for accident simulation) program. Their main objectives were to identify the major thermal-hydraulic characteristics during the reflood phase of a LBLOCA for APR1400 and to provide qualified data for APR1400 licensing. The ATLAS reflood test program could be divided into two phases (Phase-1 and Phase-2) according to the target period to be simulated. The Phase-1 tests were parametric effect tests for downcomer boiling in the late reflood phase of LBLOCA and the Phase-2 tests were integral effect tests for the entire reflood phase of LBLOCA. The experimental results from both Phase-1 and Phase-2 tests reproduced typical thermal-hydraulic trends expected to occur during the APR1400 LBLOCA scenario. A separate effect test was also performed under a low reflooding rate condition to provide data to validate the RELAP5 reflood models, and its experimental results showed a gradual reflooding in the core, a subsequent quenching of the core heater rods and the cooling of the reactor pressure vessel downcomer.     

Development and validation of a transition boiling model for RELAP5/MOD3 reflood simulation

The current version of the RELAP5/MOD3.1 code significantly underpredicts the transition boiling heat transfer during reflooding of hot fuel rods. In order to extend the code’s range of application for LOCA and degraded core analyses, a new transition boiling model has been developed, assessed and implemented. The model is based entirely on local state variables calculated by the code (wall and fluid temperatures, pressure, void fraction, mass flux and static quality) and does not rely on other history parameters, such as quench position or CHF and minimum film boiling temperatures. A number of separate-effect and bundle experiments are analyzed with the modified version of the code, and the predictions are compared with the ones obtained by the current version and with available experimental data. In all cases, the predictions of the improved model better fit the measured data. The shape of the new temperature curves is more physically and conceptually sound than the one calculated by the current version of the code.     

反应堆棒束通道搅混翼数值研究

定位格架上的搅混翼是核反应堆燃料组件中的关键部件,其性能对棒束通道热工水力特性有重要的影响。以带单层定位格架的5×5棒束为研究对象,对搅混翼排布方式及末端形状对格架下游的流场和温度场的影响进行数值模拟研究。计算结果表明,改变搅混翼的排布方式,压降几乎不受影响,但格架下游流场和传热情况却因排布方式的改变而发生显著变化;将搅混翼末端形状改为弧形,压降较典型撕裂型搅混翼没有明显差异,但换热情况得到明显改善。      

Modelling of low-pressure subcooled flow boiling using the RELAP5 code

A new model for upward vertical subcooled flow boiling at low pressure has been proposed. The model considers the most relevant closure relationships of one-dimensional thermal-hydraulic codes that are important for accurate prediction of vapour contents in the channel: wall evaporation model, condensation model, flow regime transition criterion and drift-flux model. The new model was incorporated in the current version of the RELAP5 code, MOD3.2.2 Gamma. The modified code was validated against a number of published low-pressure subcooled boiling experiments, and in contrast to the current code, shows good agreement with experimental data. The presented analysis also leads to a better understanding of the basic mechanisms of subcooled flow boiling at low pressure.     

Experimental and calculation results of the integral reflood test QUENCH-14 with M5® cladding tubes

The QUENCH-14 experiment investigated the effect of M5® cladding material on bundle oxidation and core reflood, in comparison with tests QUENCH-06 (ISP-45) that used standard Zircaloy-4 and QUENCH-12 that used VVER E110-claddings. The PWR bundle configuration of QUENCH-14 with a single unheated rod, 20 heated rods, and four corner rods was otherwise identical to QUENCH-06. The test was conducted in principle with the same protocol as QUENCH-06, so that the effects of the change of cladding material could be observed more easily. Pre-test calculations were performed by the Paul Scherrer Institut (Switzerland) using the SCDAPSIM, SCDAP/RELAP5 and MELCOR codes. Follow-on post-test analyses were performed using SCDAP/RELAP5 and MELCOR as part of an ongoing programme of model validation and code assessment. Alternative oxidation correlations were used to examine the possible influence of the M5® cladding material on hydrogen generation, in comparison with Zircaloy-4.     

Comparison of thermo-hydraulic performances of large scale vortex flow (LSVF) and small scale vortex flow (SSVF) mixing vanes in 17 × 17 nuclear rod bundle

Spacer grids in the nuclear fuel rod assembly maintain a constant distance between rods, secure flow passage and prevent the damage of the rod bundle from flow-induced vibration. The mixing vanes attached to the spacer grids generate vortex flows in the subchannels and enhance the heat transfer performance of the rod bundle. Various types of mixing vanes have been developed to produce cross flows between subchannels as well as vortex flows in the subchannels.The shapes of the mixing vane have been improved to generate larger turbulence and cross flow mixing. In the present study, two types of large scale vortex flow (LSVF) mixing vanes and two types of small scale vortex flow (SSVF) mixing vanes are examined. SSVF-single is conventional split type and SSVF-couple is split type with different arraying method. LSVF mixing vane has different geometry and arraying method to make large scale vortex. 17 × 17 rod bundle with eight spans of mixing vanes is simulated using the IBM 690 supercomputer. The FLUENT code and IBM supercomputer is employed to calculate the flow field and heat transfer in the subchannels.Turbulence intensities, maximum surface temperatures of the rod bundle, heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops of the four kinds of mixing vanes are compared. LSVF mixing vanes produced higher turbulence intensity and heat transfer coefficient than SSVF mixing vanes. Consequently, LSVF mixing vane increases the thermal efficiency and safety of the rod bundle.     

Numerical analysis of RBHT reflood experiments using MARS 1D and 3D modules

The Rod Bundle Heat Transfer (RBHT) program was performed experimentally to analyze the reflood heat transfer phenomena under the conditions of reflood phase following a hypothesized loss of coolant accident (LOCA) by the team of Penn State University. In order to verify the experimental data using a numerical analysis, the Multi-dimensional Analysis of Reactor Safety (MARS) assessment of the RBHT experimental data was carried out for the flooding rates of 0.0254 and 0.1524 m/sec with the upper plenum pressure of 276 kPa. The RBHT experimental data of Tests 1285 and 1383 were compared with the calculation results of the MARS 1D and 3D modules. The MARS code shows a good agreement in the general trend of the peak cladding temperatures although there are limitations in predicting accurate quenching time for both modules. However, in comparison to the MARS 1D module simulation, the MARS 3D module shows the improved calculation capability in that the code can capture local enhanced heat transfer with implication of spacer grids. Moreover, the temperature profiles simulated by the 3D module show the accurate prediction at which the local peak temperatures occur. For more enhanced simulations, local flow parameters such as cross flow and vortex flow need to be analyzed for a more accurate prediction of quenching behavior.     

束流瞬变下CiADS次临界反应堆燃料包壳响应特性研究

通过修改系统分析程序RELAP5 MOD4.0的点堆动力学模型与流动传热模型,使其具备了模拟液态铅铋冷却次临界反应堆动力学特性的能力;利用改进的程序模拟了加速器驱动嬗变研究装置（CiADS）的次临界反应堆燃料包壳在发生束流瞬变时的响应特性;利用ANSYS17.0程序分析了CiADS次临界反应堆燃料包壳束流瞬变下的应力变化。研究表明：失束时间越短,燃料包壳的温度回升越慢;燃料包壳不会因可能发生的束流超功率事件而发生熔毁;燃料包壳内外壁面的温差变化是影响应力变化的主要因素;CiADS次临界反应堆的燃料包壳不会因束流瞬变而发生应力破坏。     

燃料组件精细化定位格架模型开发及评价

为提高燃料组件子通道内两相局部参数预测的准确性,本文基于分布式阻力方法建立精细化定位格架模型,选用合适的摩擦阻力表达式,对格架上的交混翼进行精细化建模,采用Carlucci湍流交混模型计算湍流交混速率,引入阻塞因子计算由定位格架引起的湍流交混效应,并将建立的精细化定位格架模型植入子通道分析程序（ATHAS）,对压水堆子通道和棒束实验（PSBT）基准题进行计算分析。结果表明,本文开发的精细化定位格架模型能够提高燃料组件子通道内空泡份额和温度分布的预测准确性,为棒束通道流场、焓场计算和临界热流密度（CHF）预测奠定了基础。