Effective-medium theory for finite-size aggregates

We propose an effective-medium theory for random aggregates of small spherical particles that accounts for the finite size of the embedding volume. The technique is based on the identification of the first two orders of the Born series within a finite volume for the coherent field and the effective field. Although the convergence of the Born series requires a finite volume, the effective constants that are derived through this identification are shown to admit of a large-scale limit. With this approach we recover successively, and in a simple manner, some classical homogenization formulas: the Maxwell Garnett mixing rule, the effective-field approximation, and a finite-size correction to the quasi-crystalline approximation (QCA). The last formula is shown to coincide with the usual low-frequency QCA in the limit of large volumes, while bringing substantial improvements when the dimension of the embedding medium is of the order of the probing wavelength. An application to composite spheres is discussed.     

The thermal conductivity of Al(OH)3 covered MWCNT/epoxy terminated dimethyl polysiloxane composite based on analytical Al(OH)3 covered MWCNT

Aluminum-hydroxide-covered multi-walled carbon nanotubes (A–MWCNT) were fabricated as a thermally conductive material. The thermal conductivity of A–MWCNT was estimated based on Casimir theory. The effective thermal conductivity of A–MWCNT was estimated at about ∼26 W/mK. The thermal conductivity of A–MWCNT/epoxy-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (ETDS) composite was examined as a function of A–MWCNT loading, and the results showed the maximum value at 1.5 wt% of A–MWCNT loading, above which it decreased slightly. The effective medium approximation (EMA) developed by Maxwell–Garnett (M–G) was used to analyze the thermal conducting behavior of the composite. The experimental results showed negative deviation from the expected thermal conductivity, k_e, beyond 1.5 wt% of A–MWCNT loading, because the composites containing A–MWCNT were strongly affected by interfacial resistance. The interfacial resistance value calculated from M–G approximation increased when filler loading was higher than 1.5 wt% because of the folded and partially agglomerated A–MWCNT along with insufficient interfacial interactions.     

Optical properties of Au-MgO cermet thin films: Percolation threshold and grain size effect

The preparation and characterization of cosputtered Au-MgO cermet thin films containing gold volume fractions of 0.16-0.38 and of thicknesses 600–1000 Å are presented. Their complex dielectric constant deduced from reflectivity and transmittivity measurements between 0.5 and 3.5 eV is discussed. The optical properties of a non-percolative film were measured after two annealings (at 245 and 465°C) and were calculated using Maxwell Garnett theory as modified by Cohen et al. The percolation and the variations in grain size occurring during the annealing are fairly well described by the theory.     

Composite material made of plasmonic nanoshells with quantum dot cores: loss-compensation and ε-near-zero physical properties

A theoretical investigation of loss-compensation capabilities in composite materials made of plasmonic nanoshells is carried out by considering quantum dots (QDs) as the nanoshells' cores. The QD and metal permittivities are modeled according to published experimental data. We determine the modes with real or complex wavenumber able to propagate in a 3D periodic lattice of nanoshells. Mode analysis is also used to assess that only one propagating mode is dominant in the composite material whose optical properties can hence be described via homogenization theory. Therefore, the material effective permittivity is found by comparing different techniques: (i)?the mentioned mode analysis, (ii)?Maxwell Garnett mixing rule and (iii)?the Nicolson-Ross-Weir method based on transmission and reflection when considering a metamaterial of finite thickness. The three methods are in excellent agreement, because the nanoshells considered in this paper are very subwavelength, thus justifying the parameter homogenization. We show that QDs are able to provide loss-compensated ε-near-zero metamaterials and also loss-compensated metamaterials with large negative values of permittivity. Besides compensating for losses, the strong gain via QD can provide optical amplification with particular choices of the nanoshell and lattice dimensions.     

The photoluminescence and optical constant of ZnSe/SiO2 thin films prepared by sol–gel process

In this paper, ZnSe/SiO₂ thin films were prepared by sol–gel process. X-ray diffraction results indicate that the phase structure of ZnSe particles embedded in SiO₂ thin films is sphalerite (cubic ZnS). The dependence of ellipsometric angle ψ on wavelength λ of ZnSe/SiO₂ thin films was investigated by spectroscopic ellipsometers. The optical constant, thickness, porosity and the concentration of ZnSe/SiO₂ composite thin films were fitted according to Maxwell–Garnett effective medium theory. The thickness of ZnSe/SiO₂ thin films was also measured by surface profile. The photoluminescence properties of ZnSe/SiO₂ thin films were investigated by fluorescence spectrometer. The photoluminescence results reveal that the emission peak at 487 nm (2.5 eV) excited by 395 nm corresponds to the band-to-band emission of sphalerite ZnSe crystal (2.58 eV). Strong free exciton emission and other emission peaks corresponding to ZnSe lattice defects are also observed.     

Tuning the optical properties of metamaterials based on gold nanowire arrays embedded in alumina

We fabricated a series of gold nanowires/alumina composite films with different wire lengths. Optical transmission measurements confirmed that the composite films exhibit transverse and longitudinal surface plasmon resonances. We show that the wavelength of the longitudinal resonance is sensitive to nanowire length, while that of the transverse resonance is not. The experimental results are in agreement with the modeled results based on the Maxwell Garnett effective medium theory. Moreover, the window for negative refraction of the samples can be tuned in synchronism with the longitudinal resonance by the nanowire length.     

The polarization structure of p + p → d + π and of spinwise similar reactions

The polarization structure of the reaction $\text{1}\text{2}\text{+}\text{1}\text{2}\text{→ 1 + 0}$ is discussed in all conceivable optimal formalisms, with an application to p + p → d + π in mind. First, the relationship between the observables and the bilinear products of amplitudes is given when only Lorentz or rotation invariance holds. Then parity conservation is imposed (with the product of the four intrinsic parities taken to be ?1) and the resulting modified relationship between observables and amplitudes is displayed in all four possible optimal types of formalisms. This relationship is also constructed in the special case when the reaction angle is 90°. A comparison of the four types is made from the point of view of the phenomenological determination of amplitudes from observables, and it is found that the pure transversity formalism has the largest number of advantages. In this pure transversity formalism, a complete experimental procedure is specified for the determination of amplitudes. The procedure is also outlined for the special case of θ_cm = 90°. It is shown that while a complete determination of all amplitudes involves some measurement of the tensor polarization of the deuteron and also tends to involve observables in which all three particles are polarized, nine out of the eleven amplitude parameters can in fact be determined by measurements which involve at most two polarized particles at a time and which avoid the measurement of tensor polarization for the deuteron.     

The effect of solvent dependent local field factor in the optical properties of CdTe quantum dots

CdTe quantum dots (QDs) are synthesized at room temperature in aqueous solvents of different dielectric constants and characterized using optical spectroscopy. Absorption spectra of the QDs obtained is used to calculate the size dependent dielectric function of the QDs using Kramers–Kronig relation and iterative matrix inversion method. Effect of solvent dielectric constant on optical properties of QDs is studied theoretically using Maxwell–Garnett effective medium theory. Direct correlation between absorption intensity and solvent dielectric constant is explained on the basis of decreasing local field factor of the solvents. Emission rates of QDs is also found to have dependence on the dielectric constant of the solvent. Spontaneous emission rates of QDs in Ionic liquid environment is studied theoretically using Maxwell–Garnett effective medium theory. Our results show that variation in dielectric constant of Ionic liquids have a significant impact on spontaneous emission properties of the QDs.     

Electrical properties of carbon nanofiber reinforced multiscale polymer composites

Carbon nanofiber (CNF) reinforced epoxy matrix nanocomposites and CNF reinforced glass hollow particle filled syntactic foams are studied for electrical properties. The effect of CNF weight fraction, hollow particle volume fraction, and hollow particle wall thickness on impedance and dielectric constant are characterized. The results show that the impedance decreases and the dielectric constant increases with increasing CNF content in the composites. Nanocomposites containing 10 wt.% CNFs showed significantly higher dielectric constant because of the presence of a continuous network of CNFs in the composite. CNF reinforced syntactic foams showed higher dielectric constant than the neat resin. The CNF content had a more prominent effect on the dielectric constant than the glass hollow particle volume fraction and wall thickness. The Maxwell–Garnett and the Jayasundere–Smith models are modified to include the effect of hollow particle wall thickness and obtain predictions of dielectric constants of syntactic foams. The semi-empirical predictions obtained from Maxwell–Garnett models are closer to the experimental values. Lightweight syntactic foams, tailored for electrical properties, can be useful in electronic packaging applications.     

陶瓷型铁电复合物厚片介电系数的电场依赖性

建立起高压介电测试装置和相应的数据处理方法。研究了PZT/P (VDF-T rFE) 和PT/P (VDF- rFE) 0-3型铁电复合物厚片介电系数的电场依赖性。对于陶瓷体积分数U> 0.3 的复合物, 介电系数随测试场强的升高明显增大。在U< 0.1 时, 可用M axw ell-Garnet t 方程拟合试验结果。B ruggeman 方程适合于低电场(< 1MV/m ) 下复合物介电系数的预测。通过L z 的变化, 用Yamada 模型可拟合复合物介电系数随电场变化的关系, 说明L z 是由复合物的组分维数、粒子形状以及粒子间静电相互作用所决定的参数。      

Composite crystal Sr8/7TiSy with y = 2.84-2.97

Sr_8/7TiS_y (y=2.84-2.97) has been prepared by controlling the partial pressure of sulfur. The XRD and the ED patterns could not be indexed because of incommensurate structures; they were, therefore, indexed by four-dimensional formalism with simple lattice parameters of A, C_Ti and C_Sr in a hexagonal setting. However, a commensurate structure was obtained at y=2.84 in Sr_8/7TiS_y, the XRD and ED patterns of which were indexed by three- and four-dimensional formalisms. The sulfides, including incommensurate and commensurate structures, could be regarded as a single phase with a homogeneity range of sulfur of y=2.84-2.97, when the four-dimensional formalism was used. On the other hand, from the viewpoint of three-dimensional formalism, the structure contains two penetrating hexagonal subcells. The lattice parameter “a” in hexagonal setting is common to both subcells, while c is given by c=pC_Ti=qC_Sr, where p and q are integers, and C_Ti and C_Sr are the periodicities in c-direction of the two subcells, respectively. Hence, there is an infinite number of the structures in the composition range of y=2.84-2.97 in Sr_8/7TiS_y.     

Structured selective coatings

Nickel-impregnated anodized Al₂O₃ films on aluminium substrates were investigated as possible selective coatings for the photothermal conversion of solar energy. A purely chemical dip process for producing these spectrally selective coatings was developed as an alternative to the electrochemical process reported earlier. The process parameters were optimized to give α = 0.92 and ε = 0.19. These coatings are cheap, efficient and durable.X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis investigations were performed at various stages during the formation of these coatings and their structure was determined from the data obtained. The proposed structure agrees with that reported earlier. Maxwell Garnett theory and the concept of the equivalent homogeneous medium were used to determine the theoretical optical properties of these films as a function of (1) the thickness and porosity of the Al₂O₃ layer and (2) the thickness of nickel deposited in the pores. The optimum values of the theoretical parameters are in good agreement with those determined experimentally.     

On the formalization and reuse of scientific research

The reuse of scientific knowledge obtained from one investigation in another investigation is basic to the advance of science. Scientific investigations should therefore be recorded in ways that promote the reuse of the knowledge they generate. The use of logical formalisms to describe scientific knowledge has potential advantages in facilitating such reuse. Here, we propose a formal framework for using logical formalisms to promote reuse. We demonstrate the utility of this framework by using it in a worked example from biology: demonstrating cycles of investigation formalization [F] and reuse [R] to generate new knowledge. We first used logic to formally describe a Robot scientist investigation into yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) functional genomics [f₁]. With Robot scientists, unlike human scientists, the production of comprehensive metadata about their investigations is a natural by-product of the way they work. We then demonstrated how this formalism enabled the reuse of the research in investigating yeast phenotypes [r₁ = R(f₁)]. This investigation found that the removal of non-essential enzymes generally resulted in enhanced growth. The phenotype investigation was then formally described using the same logical formalism as the functional genomics investigation [f₂ = F(r₁)]. We then demonstrated how this formalism enabled the reuse of the phenotype investigation to investigate yeast systems-biology modelling [r₂ = R(f₂)]. This investigation found that yeast flux-balance analysis models fail to predict the observed changes in growth. Finally, the systems biology investigation was formalized for reuse in future investigations [f₃ = F(r₂)]. These cycles of reuse are a model for the general reuse of scientific knowledge.     

Artificial dielectric medium possessing simultaneously negative permittivity and magnetic permeability

An artificial dielectric medium comprising two sublattices of spherical particles made of a high-dielectric-constant (high-ε) material, which are embedded into a low-ε dielectric matrix, are considered. Particles belonging to different sublattices have different diameters. It is shown that the properties of this composite structure are equivalent to those of an isotropic medium possessing a negative refractive index (n < 0) in the vicinity of frequencies at which the H ₁₁₁ and E ₁₁₁ oscillation modes exhibit simultaneous resonance in particles of different diameters, which leads to the appearance of electric and magnetic dipole moments, respectively. Averaging of these dipole moments over the volumes of cells formed by the corresponding spherical particles determines their contributions to the permittivity and magnetic permeability of the composite medium. At frequencies above the resonance, both contributions become negative and, hence, the medium exhibits simultaneously negative values of the permittivity and magnetic permeability. The proposed composite structure consists only of dielectric components. Spherical particles with ε_d > 200 can be made of a ferroelectric material.     

Transport properties of LixV2O5 (x = 0.6-1.6) electrode material

The lithium vanadate Li_xV₂O₅ (x=0.6-1.6) has been prepared by the solid state reaction method. The electrical studies are carried out on the gold coated pellets. The diffusion constant (D) and the mean free path (a) have been calculated using Rice and Roth formalism. The conductivity parameters such as ion hopping frequency (ω_p) and the charge carrier concentration (K′) have been calculated using Almond and West formalisms. The variations of the above parameters with temperature and lithium content in Li_xV₂O₅ have been studied.     

Surface enhanced absorption and transmission from dye coated gold nanoparticles in thin films

Absorption spectra of gold nanoisland thin film and the composite film of gold having thin coating of Methylene Blue and Rh6G dyes have been studied. Thin gold nanoisland film shows surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak in the visible wavelength range, which shifts to near infrared with an increase in the thickness of the film. It was found that thin film of gold consists of nanoparticles of different size and shape, particularly nanorods of noncylindrical shapes. A linear relation was found between SPR peak wavelength and the aspect ratio of the nanoparticles in gold thin film. Effective medium refractive index of the gold film is estimated to be ~2.5, which decreases with an increase in film thickness. The coating of dyes on gold films splits the SPR peak with an enhanced absorption. Enhancement in absorption of composite film is maximal when the dye absorption peak coincides with the SPR peak; otherwise enhancement in transmission is observed for all the wavelength range. Absorption amplitude of composite film peaks increase with an increase in the gold film thickness, which tend toward saturation for film thickness of ≥6 nm. A correlation shows that absorption spectra can be described by the Maxwell Garnett theory, when the gold nanoparticles have a nearly spherical shape for very thin film (≤6 nm).     

Effect of chromium carbide coating on thermal properties of short graphite fiber/Al composites

A chromium carbide coating was synthesized onto graphite fibers by molten salts method to improve the interfacial bonding and thermal properties of short graphite fiber/Al composites which were fabricated by vacuum pressure infiltration technique. The graphite fiber/Al composites with different thicknesses of chromium carbide coatings were prepared through varying plating times to investigate the influence of chromium carbide layer on the microstructures and thermal properties of the composites. The combined Maxwell–Garnett effective medium approach and acoustic mismatch model schemes were used to theoretically predict thermal conductivities of the composites. The results indicated that the chromium carbide coating formed on graphite fiber surface in molten salts consists mainly of the Cr₇C₃ phase. The Cr₇C₃-coating layer with plating time of 60 min and thickness of 0.5 μm was found to be most effective in improving the interfacial bonding and decreasing the interfacial thermal resistance between graphite fiber and aluminum matrix. The 40 vol% Cr₇C₃-coated graphite fiber/Al composite with Cr₇C₃ thickness of 0.5 μm exhibited 45.4 % enhancement in in-plane thermal conductivity of 221 W m^?1 K^?1 compared to that of uncoated composite, as well as the coefficient of thermal expansion of 9.4 × 10^?6 K^?1, which made it as very interesting material for thermal management applications.     

Optical absorption behaviour of evaporated CuxS thin films

The optical absorption behaviour of thin films of copper sulphide (Cu_xS) formed by a vacuum deposition process at substrate temperatures of 27, 125 and 200°C was studied with a view to establishing a correlation with their structure. From the reflection and transmission data, the optical constants and the absorption coefficient were computed. Both the direct edge at 1.8 eV and the indirect edge at 0.855 eV, 1.075 eV and 1.105 eV respectively for these films were observed. These transitions explain the observed dependence of the absorption coefficient on the photon energy. The unusually high values of the absorption coefficient for the film deposited at room temperature were due to scattering-absorption and are explained on the basis of Maxwell Garnett theory. For Cu_xS compositions with 1.96 < x < 2.0, no changes in the direct edge were observed. The indirect edge shifts upwards by 0.22 eV when disordering of the copper sublattice occurs in the Cu₂S phase. The indirect transitions are associated with the changes in lattice structure and stoichiometry.     

Dielectric engineering of Ge nanocrystal/SiO2 nanocomposite thin films with Ge ion implantation: Modeling and measurement

Ge nanocrystal (nc-Ge) embedded SiO₂ nanocomposite thin films have been synthesized with the ion implantation technique. The distribution profile of nc-Ge in the SiO₂ matrix can be tailored by varying the implantation energy and dose in the Ge ion implantation process; thus the effective dielectric constant of the nc-Ge/SiO₂ nanocomposite thin films can be engineered. The effective metal–oxide-semiconductor (MOS) capacitance of the nanocomposite thin films has been calculated using the sub-layer model and the Maxwell–Garnett effective medium approximation, taking the reduced dielectric constant corresponding to the nanometer size of nc-Ge into account. On the other hand, capacitance–voltage measurements on the MOS structures based on the nc-Ge/SiO₂ thin films have been conducted to extract the capacitance experimentally. The modeling and measurement results have shown good agreement, suggesting that the nanocomposite dielectric engineering can be easily realized through the energy- and dose-controlled Ge⁺ implantation technique.     

Homogenization of a heat transfer problem in a highly heterogeneous periodic medium

We consider the homogenization of a heat transfer problem in a periodic media made of two connected components having comparable conductivities separated by a third medium (insulating layer), the thickness of which is of the same order ? than the basic periodicity cell, and such that its conductance λ becomes infinitely small at the same time as ?, following a rate λ=λ(?). In the case where ?²/λ remains bounded, we identify the homogenized problem. Otherwise, we have to assume moreover that there are no sources in the third medium.