Modeling and Analysis of Deformation for Spiral Bevel Gear in Die Quenching Based on the Hardenability Variation

Spiral bevel gears are widely used to transmit energy between intersecting axes. The strength and fatigue life of the gears are improved by carburizing and quenching. A die quenching process is used to control the deformation of the gear. The deformation is determined by the variations in the hardenability for a certain die quenching process. The relationship between hardenability, phase transformation and deformation needs to be studied to minimize deformation during the adjustment of the die quenching process parameters. In this paper, material properties for 22CrMoH steel are determined by the results of Jominy tests, dilatometry experiments and static mechanical property tests. The material models were built based on testing results under the consideration of hardenability variation. An finite element analysis model was developed to couple the phase transformation and deformation history of the complete carburizing and die quenching process for the spiral bevel gears. The final microstructures in the gear were bainite for low hardenability steel and a mixture of bainite and ferrite for high hardenability steel. The largest buckling deformation at the gear bottom surface is 0.375 mm at the outer circle for the low hardenability gear and 0.091 mm at the inner circle for the high hardenability gear.     

Thermomechanical deformation behaviour of DH36 steel during friction stir welding by experimental validation and modelling

Friction stir welding is a solid state thermomechanical deformation process from which the plasticisation behaviour of the stirred material can be evaluated through the study of flow stress evolution. Flow stress data also supporting the development of a local microstructural numerical model have been generated. Hot compression testing of DH36 steel has been performed at a temperature range of 700–1100°C and strain rates from 10^?3 to 10² s^?1 to study the alloy’s thermomechanical deformation behaviour in conditions that simulate the actual friction stir welding process. It has been found that the evolution of flow stress is significantly affected by the test temperature and deformation rate. The material’s constitutive equation and constants have been calculated after analysis of these data. Preliminary numerical analysis results are in good agreement with experimental observations.     

锻造加热温度对20Cr2Ni4A钢奥氏体晶粒长大及力学性能的影响

研究了锻造加热温度(1050~1200 ℃)和锻造保温时间(40~120 min)对20Cr2Ni4A钢经相同锻造变形后锻后奥氏体晶粒长大行为的影响,并对不同锻造加热温度下的淬火态20Cr2Ni4A钢进行了力学性能检测。结果表明,锻后20Cr2Ni4A钢奥氏体晶粒长大规律在低于1150 ℃仍然符合Beck模型,模型计算值与实际测量值相吻合。随着锻造加热温度的升高,奥氏体晶粒长大呈现先缓慢增加后快速增加的规律。当锻造加热温度超过1150 ℃时,第二相粒子大量溶解,对晶界的钉扎作用急剧减弱。综合考虑20Cr2Ni4A钢锻后奥氏体晶粒尺寸均匀性、热处理后力学性能测试结果及可锻性因素,确定最优锻造加热温度为1150 ℃。     

Hardening of low-carbon, high-strength steel by deformation in the intercritical temperature range

The effect of deformation in the intercritical temperature range on the phase composition, structure, and properties of low-alloy steel of type 08G6N2MAF is considered. It is established that the deformation increases the stability of secondary retained austenite, provides a fibrous structure, and improves the mechanical properties of the steel. The special features of texture formation under different deformation temperatures are described, and the role of the structural components in the evolution of mechanical properties is discussed. Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 5, pp. 11–15, May, 1999.     

Research on Transient Liquid Phase Diffusion Bonding of Steel Sandwich Panels Under Small Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation was newly introduced in transient liquid phase (TLP) diffusion bonding of steel sandwich panels. The effect of plastic deformation on bonding strength was investigated through lab experiments. It was assumed that three factors, including newly generated metal surface area, deformation heat, and lattice distortion, contribute to the acceleration of interface atoms diffusion and increase of diffusion coefficients. A numerical model of isothermal solidification time was developed for TLP bonding process under plastic deformation and applied to carbon steel sandwich panels bonding with copper interlayer. A reasonable isothermal solidification time was obtained when an effective diffusion coefficient was used. Based on lab experiments, the effects of plastic deformation on interlayer film thickness and isothermal solidification time were studied through theoretical calculation with the new model. The evolution of interlayer film thickness indicates a good agreement between the calculation and experimental measurement. The results show that the isothermal solidification time is obviously reduced due to the effect of plastic deformation. Furthermore, a new steel sandwich cooling panel for heat exchanger was fabricated by TLP diffusion bonding under 13.1% plastic deformation. The test results suggest that a steel sandwich panel of inequidistant fin structure can provide enhanced heat transfer efficiency.     

Effect of submicrocrystalline state on strength and impact toughness of low-carbon 12GBA steel

The effect of intense warm deformation on the structure and mechanical properties of low-carbon 12GBA steel was investigated. A submicrocrystalline (SMC) structure with an average element size of 0.3 ??m was formed in the steel by isothermal overall forging. The formation of the SMC structure resulted in a sharp increase in strength by a factor of two to three in relation to the initial coarse-grained state while retaining a sufficient level of plasticity and impact toughness. After further annealing, steels exhibit an improved set of properties; i.e., as the strength decreases slightly, the plasticity increases sharply. Impact tests at low temperatures have shown the significant advantage of the SMC state of the steel over the coarse-grained state in the impact toughness. It is established that the cold resistance in the SMC state increases because the crack propagation prevails in the overall sample fracture.     

Structure of chromium-nickel steel 14KH17N2 after high-temperature tempering

The structure of steel 14Kh17N2 after quenching exhibits -phase (ferrite alloyed with chromium and nickel), which causes the formation of streaks, filaments, and other defects in the metal during rolling and hot pressure treatment. The properties of the microstructure of this steel can be judged by the state of the carbide phase segregating on phase interfaces and inside grains. A complex analysis of the changes in the state of the carbide phase M₂₃C₆ in the process of high-temperature tempering of steel 14Kh17N2 (for example, at 700°C is of practical interest. The results of this analysis make it possible to make recommendations on improvement of the properties of the steel and to refine the optimum chemical and phase compositions.Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 5 , pp. 36–38, May, 1995.     

双相区加速冷却处理对X80管线钢组织与性能的影响

采用双相区加速冷却法(加速冷却始冷温度为700 ℃)对X80管线钢进行热处理,获得了贝氏体和铁素体(B+F)双相组织。然后通过组织表征、力学性能测试以及在3.5wt%NaCl溶液中的耐蚀性进行研究。结果表明:热处理后获得的管线钢组织由板条状贝氏体、多边形铁素体及少量马氏体/奥氏体岛组成。与热处理前相比,(B+F)双相管线钢屈强比较低,为0.65,初始加工硬化指数为0.31,均匀伸长率达8.3%,塑性显著提升;双相组织中含有52.4%的铁素体,因而耐腐蚀性明显提高。通过双相区加速冷却法获得的(B+F)两相组织在塑变过程中发生协调变形,可以适应大变形的需求,同时耐蚀性优异,为大变形管线钢实际生产提供一定的借鉴。     

Plastic deformation behaviour of fine-grained materials

A phase mixture model in which a polycrystalline material is regarded as a mixture of a crystalline phase and a grain-boundary phase is presented. The model aims to describe the plastic deformation behaviour of fine-grained materials. The mechanical properties of the crystalline phase are modelled using unified viscoplastic constitutive relations, which take dislocation density evolution and diffusion creep into account. The total strain rate of a crystallite is calculated by summation of the contributions of dislocation, boundary diffusion and lattice diffusion mechanisms. The deformation mechanism for the grain-boundary phase is modelled as a diffusional flow of matter through the grain boundary. Using a simple rule of mixtures, the grain size dependence of the overall plastic deformation behaviour of the material is analysed. Rate effects are also investigated. The results of the calculations are compared with previously published experimental data.     

Twinning-like Deformation Behaviour of Ti_3Al

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Experimental characterisation in sheet forming processes by using Vickers micro-hardness technique

In this paper, an experimental micro-hardness procedure is proposed to evaluate the evolution of HSLA steel behaviour during each sequence of sheet forming process. As micro-hardness technique offers a reliable inspection, it was retained here to follow the mechanical characteristic changes, which may happen during manufacturing progress. This contribution consists in characterisation of sheet material at different steps: virgin sheet, unreeled sheet, straightened sheet and bent sheet. Measurement performed on virgin HSLA steel showed that material is highly heterogeneous within the sheet thickness. The micro-hardness profiles examined after the bobbing-off step showed a high sensitivity of sheet behaviour to straightening operation that is widely adopted in steel working in order to make sheet sufficiently flat for forming. A level of hardening ratio between virgin material and straightened material has been clearly observed. Moreover, micro-hardness is investigated on bent parts at the fold zone for displaying the mechanical properties modifications under a large gradient deformation. In this way, hardening phenomenon and damage phenomenon, which are generally activated simultaneously for elastoplastic steel, are quantified accurately. Results compared into them gave a good idea about the interaction of process–material during manufacturing.     

基体组织对800 MPa级双相钢强塑性机制的影响

采用两种热处理工艺制度,得到不同基体组织的800 MPa级双相钢,并系统地研究了基体微观组织特征及其对强塑性机制的影响。结果表明,基体组织对800 MPa级双相钢的塑性变形机制有显著影响,从而导致性能产生差异。(F+M)双相钢由多边形铁素体和约28%的第二相马氏体组成,屈强比0.540,而伸长率达到23.3%;(BF+γ)双相钢由贝氏体铁素体基体组织和约24%的第二相残留奥氏体组成,其屈强比为0.702,同时扩孔率达到56%。(BF+γ)双相钢在塑性变形过程中,厚度约为60~150 nm的γ相可有效分解裂纹尖端的应力集中,消耗裂纹扩展能量,同时诱导残留γ发生马氏体相变引起的体积膨胀还可弥合微裂纹产生的缝隙,在α相BF和残留γ两相的协调变形机制作用下,有益于提高其强度、塑性和扩孔性能。此外,(BF+γ)双相钢大角度晶界所占比例增加至63.1%,同时基体中存在较高的位错密度,均可有效弱化微裂纹扩展的驱动能,增加其继续扩展所需能量,缓解其在变形或扩孔过程中产生的应力集中。     

Precipitation of NbC in a model austenitic steel

A model Fe–30 wt% Ni, 0.1 C, 1.61 Mn, 0.1 Nb microalloyed steel, that simulates conventional microalloyed C–Mn steels, but does not transform from the austenite phase on cooling, is reported. Plane strain compression testing was undertaken at 950°C at a constant true strain rate of 10 s⁻¹. Samples were deformed in a two stage process. An initial true strain of 0.25–0.45 was followed by unloading, a hold of 1–1000 s and a final deformation to a total true strain of 0.5–0.9. A single deformation was undertaken under identical conditions, but to the total true strain of the double deformation tests. Electron spectroscopic imaging (ESI) in the TEM was used to determine precipitate size and distribution. A 1 s hold time between equal strains of ϵ=0.25 was sufficient for appreciable strain induced precipitation, although 40% static recrystallisation occurred during the hold time. Precipitation occurred entirely on dislocations, present principally as microband walls but also as a rudimentary cell structure within the microbands. No evidence was found for NbC precipitation in the matrix, which therefore remains supersaturated with Nb. NbC particle diameter was in the range 2.5–15 nm, with a density of 3.8×10²¹ particles/m³ for a 100 s delay period between two strains of ϵ=0.45 at 950°C. Both the size and number density are consistent with those observed in conventional microalloyed C–Mn steels. The behaviour of the model microalloyed Fe–30 Ni steel is discussed in relation to the data on conventional microalloyed steels.     

基于数值模拟的20A钢棒材热连轧晶粒尺寸的预测

通过Deform-3D有限元分析软件及正交实验,模拟并优化了20A钢棒材热连轧过程的工艺参数,并对该热轧工艺条件下的20A钢棒材的晶粒组织的有限元数值模拟以及物理实验验证进行探索。对比数值模拟值与物理实验值,研究结果表明:在最佳工艺参数条件下,数值模拟的20A钢棒材平均晶粒尺寸为45.8 mm,而物理实验中的平均晶粒尺寸为47.56 mm,二者数值均满足技术要求,且误差仅为3.7%,通过有限元模拟能够成功地预测热轧变形过程晶粒尺寸大小。     

高温变形含Nb微合金钢流变应力数学模型

利用Gleeble-2000热模拟试验机对含Nb微合金钢进行了单道次压缩试验,实测了不同变形温度和变形速率下实验钢的变形抗力,分析了各变形参数对实验钢动态再结晶和变形抗力的影响.确定了实验钢的动态再结晶激活能为245.448 kJ/mol(峰态时)和166.994 kJ/mol(稳态时),并建立了实验钢高温变形抗力的数学模型.该模型具有良好的曲线拟合特性,用该模型计算的结果与实测值吻合较好,可以为计算力能参数提供理论依据.     

板翅结构钎焊残余应力与热变形的有限元分析

对微小尺寸的镍基钎焊不锈钢板翅结构在真空钎焊过程中产生的残余应力分布与热变形状况进行研究分析.采用有限元方法对三层结构的钎焊过程进行了热-力分析,分析考虑真空钎焊的加热特点同时考虑板翅材料和镍基钎料与温度相关的材料特性,得到了钎焊过程中结构的温度变化规律以及钎焊后的残余应力分布和热变形特征.结果表明,隔板与翅片具有不同的热变形特征,板翅钎焊接头钎角处应力状况复杂,易萌生裂纹导致板翅结构的失效,需要选择合适的钎焊时间以得到较好的钎焊接头.     

控轧控冷工艺对F40MnV非调质钢组织及性能的影响

研究了不同的控轧工艺参数对非调质钢组织结构的影响规律,并在非调质钢零件不同部位采用强化控冷技术进行锻后冷却,得到了优化的非调质钢控轧控冷技术。结果表明:非调质钢转向节零件局部强化控冷技术能显著提高零件局部的综合力学性能;在1273～1373 K下,随着应变量ε在0.22～1.61内增加,实验钢原奥氏体晶粒从26～12μm逐渐细化,在该条件下峰值应变约为0.3;在1173～1473 K范围内随着变形温度的降低,变形抗力增大,峰值应变也随之增大,材料原奥氏体晶粒尺寸在20～11μm内逐渐减小;在增大锻压比和局部风冷两种工艺配合下,F40MnV钢可获得较好的综合力学性能。     

异构片层结构304不锈钢的制备及其力学性能

采用形变诱导马氏体退火逆转变工艺制备了异构片层结构(HLS)的304奥氏体不锈钢。通过扫描电镜和X射线衍射仪分析了304奥氏体不锈钢的显微组织和物相组成,并采用室温拉伸试验研究了其力学性能。结果表明,通过变形量为34%的热轧、75%的冷轧以及700 ℃退火12 min后,试验钢中的马氏体相逆转变为奥氏体相,部分残留奥氏体发生再结晶,获得了由微米再结晶晶粒与超细晶/纳米晶晶粒以及残留奥氏体晶粒组成的异构片层结构,微米再结晶晶粒和残留奥氏体被超细晶/纳米晶晶粒所包围。异构片层结构304奥氏体不锈钢的屈服强度为940.1 MPa,断裂总延伸率为43.1%,获得了良好的强度-塑性匹配。     

Effect of hardening friction treatment with hard-alloy indenter on microstructure, mechanical properties, and deformation and fracture features of constructional steel under static and cyclic tension

It has been studied how a hardening friction treatment with a sliding hard-alloy indenter influences the chemical composition and roughness of the surface, the structure, the distribution of the microhardness and the density of dislocations in depth of the surface layer, the mechanical properties upon static tension and the features of deformation and fracture upon cyclic tension of the annealed low-carbon (0.17 wt.% C) steel grade 20. It has been found that friction hardening of the steel (an increase in the microhardness up to 4.25 GPa) is due to a considerable dispersion of the ferritic base (with the formation of alpha-phase fragments no less than 100 nm in size) and pearlite colonies (crushing and partial dissolution of cementite plates) under the action of a severe friction deformation; hardening is not connected with the carryover of separate particles of the hard alloy to the steel surface. A finite-element model describing the process of the friction treatment with a sliding cylindrical indenter has been constructed. This model was used to determine how the number of the indenter strokes, the friction coefficient, and the shear component of the deformation affect the value of the accumulated deformation. It has been shown that the friction treatment improves the strength characteristics of the steel upon static tension. The hardened surface layer is susceptible to further considerable hardening (an increase in the microhardness up to 5.6-5.9 GPa) at the initial stages of the cyclic deformation and, therefore, has some margin of plasticity. The plastic flow in the surface-hardened steel under cyclic loading is due to the formation of numerous bands of localized deformation. It has been found that the friction-hardened surface layer is more prone to cracking under cyclic loading. The methods by which cracking of the hardened layer can be diminished have been discussed.