Assessing mental retardation in death penalty cases: Critical issues for psychology and psychological practice.

In 2002, the United States Supreme Court decided the Atkins case, which held that mentally retarded defendants could not be executed. The opinion gave no guidance on the definition of mental retardation, preferring to leave to individual states the task of determining not only the definition of mental retardation but also the assessment procedures to be used in making the diagnosis. This lack of guidance has resulted in many issues, including varying definitions of what constitutes mental retardation across states, use of different assessment procedures to make the determination that a person has mental retardation, and numerous psychometric concerns regarding the provision of psychological assessment services to the courts in capital cases that involve a defendant who may have mental retardation. This article examines these latter issues in detail from both psychological and legal perspectives and makes recommendations for practicing psychologists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of theory in guiding family assessment.

Argues that family assessment in both research and clinical practice is most useful when it is explicitly guided by theory. The current state of theorizing about the family is considered, including psychological, sociological, and systemic perspectives. Links between theory and assessment are also discussed. The field of family psychology, which has a role to play in providing conceptual ground for researchers and clinicians from diverse disciplines interested in the family, is used as an example of how theory and assessment can be bridged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Symptom perception in children with asthma: Cognitive and psychological factors.

Objective: This study tested the differential effects of several cognitive and psychological variables on children's perception of asthma symptoms by use of an Asthma Risk Grid. Children's subjective and objective assessments of PEFR (peak expiratory flow rate) were characterized as representing perceptual accuracy, symptom magnification, and/or underestimation of asthma symptoms. Design: The study included 270 children with asthma (ages 7–17) and their primary caregivers who completed measures assessing cognitive and psychological factors and a 5 to 6 week symptom perception assessment. Main Outcome Measures: Children's symptom perception scores by use of the Asthma Risk Grid. Results: Children's attentional abilities had more of a bearing on their symptom monitoring abilities than their IQ estimates and psychological symptoms. The more time children took on Trails and Cancellation Tasks and the fewer errors they made on these tasks, the more likely they were to perceive their asthma symptoms accurately. More time on these tasks was associated with more symptom magnification scores, and fewer errors were related to fewer symptom magnification scores. More errors and higher total scores on the Continuous Performance Task were associated with a greater proportion of scores in the danger zone. Conclusion: Statistical support was provided for the utility of attentional-based instruments for identifying children who may have problems with perceptual accuracy, and who are at risk for asthma morbidity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In the public interest: Intellectual disability, the Supreme Court, and the death penalty.

This article deals with a case that recently came before the U.S. Supreme Court. The issues involved whether attorneys provided effective assistance to a person convicted of murder when no mitigating evidence was presented (either strategically or by neglect) to the jury concerning the intellectual disabilities of their client during the death penalty phase of the trial. The Supreme Court had previously ruled that the death penalty for intellectually disabled individuals (mentally retarded) constituted cruel and unusual punishment. In this case the attorneys made a strategic decision not to present possibly mitigating evidence for the death penalty phase. The Supreme Court considered whether the appeals court abdicated its judicial review responsibilities. The results of psychological evaluations are presented, and the decisions of the Supreme Court are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Arguments and relationships within the family: Differences in young children's disputes with mother and sibling.

Examined whether children's arguments differ in disputes with mother and with sibling as well as how arguments used in family interaction relate to later assessment of social understanding. 50 children (aged 33 mo) were observed interacting with the mother and sibling in 2 visits in the child's home, and family conversation was recorded and subsequently transcribed. Results showed correlations between partners' arguments in conflict within dyads, but children's argument with their mothers was not related to that used when in dispute with their siblings. Children's use of argument with sibling was also predictive of sociocognitive performance assessed 7 mo later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Evaluation of Sources of Information About Traits.

Children's assessment of the value of different sources of information about psychological traits was investigated among 6- to 7-year-olds and 10- to 11-year-olds across 5 studies (N=330). Older children were more likely than younger children to reject self-report as a source of information about the highly evaluative traits smart and honest, but no such age-related difference was seen for the less evaluative comparison traits outgoing and nervous. A similar pattern of age-related differences was seen when children were asked to identify which of 4 sources of information--self-report, teacher report, peer report, or direct observation--would be most useful for obtaining information about the evaluative and comparison traits. The age-related increase in skepticism about self-report as a source of information for evaluative traits was associated with an increased appreciation of the role that social desirability plays in self-presentational processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with dietary therapy in phenylketonuria: A case report.

Describes the long-term effects of maintaining the diet required for treatment of phenylketonuria in a 7-yr-old girl on 1 family's eating and mealtime events. A behavioral/family systems oriented assessment was taken using a battery of tests including the McCarthy Scales of Children's Abilities, Wide Range Achievement Test, the Child Behavior Checklist, and an eating behavior inventory. An intervention program is described, utilizing family systems oriented/parent training and individual child sessions. Implications for enhancing dietary adherence and long-term management of dietary therapy are discussed. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Forensic psychological testimony: Is the courtroom door now locked and barred?

Beginning with the Supreme Court of Canada's decision in R v. Marquard (1993), it has become increasingly more difficult for lawyers to have proposed psychological testimony admitted into evidence at trial. By reviewing several recent cases, the author shows how courts are applying legal rules of admissibility in cases where expert psychological evidence is being proffered. Drawing on the review of case law, the author provides useful recommendations that will help psychologists ensure that—when appropriate—their testimony will be held admissible by courts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Urban ecological structure and perceived child and adolescent psychological disorder

This research examined the distribution and ecological correlates of referrals of children and adolescents to the Regional Children's Centre, a psychological assessment and treatment centre located in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Referral data were collected by the Regional Children's Centre for the study period April 1992 through March 1994. The ecological structure of the study area was derived using principal components analysis of a set of socio-economic indicator variables from the 1991 Census of Canada and a cluster analysis of component scores. Referral rates were calculated for each ecological area for two referral subgroups; modi/conduct/stress-related concerns and neurophysiologically based concerns. The distribution of referrals was tested using the Poisson probability test. This test revealed that, for both subgroups analysed, the distribution of referrals in the study area was non-random. Stepwise multiple regression revealed a significant ecological relationship between the mood/conduct/stress-related concerns referral rate and the ecological structure of the study area. No such relationship was found, however, when examining referrals for neurophysiologically based concerns.     

Gender-role analysis: A neglected component of psychological assessment.

Discusses the influence of gender membership and gender-role socialization on psychological functioning and psychopathology, and proposes issues for the integration of gender-role analysis into the process of psychological assessment. Illustrations of how awareness or ignorance of gender-role issues can impact the outcome of psychological assessment are presented, and guidelines for the inclusion of gender-role analysis into the psychological assessment process are proposed. It is suggested that the assessment of gender-role issues requires a consideration of the lessons of gender, how they were learned, and what meaning was given to that experience; specific cultural values; how like or different the client's family was from other families who shared the client's cultural background; and the client's adult sexual and physical abuse history. The benefits of including gender-role analysis to both therapist/assessor and client are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coal handling, steamfitting, psychology, and law.

Discusses 2 court cases where invalid psychological tests were administered to exclude blacks from employment and promotion as examples of breaches of professional standards. The 1st case involved promotion from laborer (all black) to coal handler (all white) in a North Carolina power plant. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously that tests could be used only when demonstrably related to job performance. The 2nd case in New York City involved 2 blacks who were barred from apprenticeship training in steamfitting on the basis of an irrelevant test of verbal analogies. Neither the American Psychological Association (APA) manual of test standards nor its casebook of ethical standards discusses these abuses. In addition to updating these volumes, the APA is urged to play a greater role in educating lawyers, government officials, and businessmen on the technical aspects of test validation in light of the Supreme Court decision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Congruence of parental perception, marital satisfaction, and child adjustment.

Fathers and mothers of 95 children 5–7 yrs old completed the Short Marital Adjustment Test, Interpersonal Checklist, and the Children's Behavior Checklist to assess marital satisfaction, congruence of self- and mate-perceptions, and agreement in parents' perceptions of their child and child adjustment, respectively. All variables were significantly, positively intercorrelated. Strongest association was between congruence in parents' perceptions of the child and child adjustment. Similarity in partners' self-concepts and psychological empathy were significantly associated with marital satisfaction and child adjustment. A general dimension of family harmony (vs conflict) is seen as contributing to children's social adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with a death from cancer.

Suggests that because of such factors as prevalence, public awareness, known risks, uncertainty of outcome, intensive treatments, economic burdens, and debilitating chronicity, a cancer-related death carries some special meanings. Intense stresses accumulate and affect both the dying family member and the bereaved survivors. However, the nature of cancer also offers potential opportunities for psychologically beneficial interventions that may not exist for other causes of death. The adaptation to a cancer death is considered in terms of anticipatory grief, the duration of mourning, the importance of intrafamilial support and open communication, and the value of home care. Children's understanding of death and coping processes are described from a developmental perspective. Other issues considered include how a death from cancer differs from a similar loss under other circumstances, why rigorous research in this area is complicated, and what opportunities exist in the cancer context for psychological interventions. (72 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sibling conflict in middle childhood predicts children's adjustment in early adolescence.

Associations between sibling conflict in middle childhood and psychological adjustment in early adolescence were studied in a sample of 80 boys and 56 girls. Parents and children provided self-report data about family relationships and children's adjustment. Parents' hostility to children was assessed from videotaped interactions. Results showed that sibling conflict at Time 1 predicted increases in children's anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior 2 years later. Moreover, earlier sibling conflict at Time 1 accounted for unique variance in young adolescents' Time 2 anxiety, depressed mood, and delinquent behavior above and beyond the variance explained by earlier maternal hostility and marital conflict. Children's adjustment at Time 1 did not predict sibling conflict at Time 2. Results highlight the unique significance of the earlier sibling relationship for young adolescents' psychological adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys will be girls, girls will be boys: Children affect parents as parents affect children in gender nonconformity.

There are transformational possibilities in the family when presented with a child who is transgender or gender nonconforming. Challenging orthodox psychoanalytic thinking that these children's gender presentations are a consequence of poor parental rearing, trauma, or attachment disruptions, it is proposed that gender nonconformity is healthy rather than pathological and that typically these children initially just show up in their families, rather than being shaped by them. Looking at the metabolism of transphobia and the transformational possibilities within the family when boys will be girls and girls will be boys, 3 family types that either support or impede their children's creative gender development are presented: the transformers, the transphobic, and the transporting, with case material to illustrate each of the family types. A psychological construct is developed to explain the feedback loop between family and child: The transgender or gender nonconforming child who transgresses binary gender norms may face culturally imbued transphobia and psychological trauma within the family while simultaneously facilitating the family's transcendence of transphobia through transformative experiences with the child as he or she transitions from the gender assigned at birth to his or her authentic and affirmed gender identity or expression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychologist as an expert witness on the issue of insanity.

Psychologists have made assertions in the courtroom "that do not have the blessings of the entire professional psychological community, and these assertions have brought court opporpribum to them and perhaps to the psychologist in general." Testimony from a District Court of the District of Columbia is presented; it provides "psychologists who rely on projective tests with information on how such evaluations may be treated by an opposing and often hostile attorney, or how they may be interpreted in a court of law which permits cross examination of witnesses, including expert witnesses." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Practical and ethical assessment issues in rural, impoverished, and managed care settings.

The rising costs of new psychological tests, increased frequency of test revisions, and difficulty receiving authorization and reimbursement from managed care companies make it increasingly difficult for practitioners to provide the best standard of care to clients when conducting psychological and neuropsychological assessments. Practitioners, especially those in low-income and rural areas, may struggle with handling these practical realities while maintaining ethical standards in conducting psychological assessment. Suggestions for how to manage practical challenges faced by practitioners who provide psychological assessments, such as selecting tests when authorization or reimbursement by a third-party payer is restricted or denied, purchasing psychological tests on a budget, and providing assessments with a limited number of qualified staff are discussed. The authors also provide recommendations for the future prevention of these challenges through work with test developers, test publishing corporations, third-party payers, political action groups, and the psychology profession itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The American Psychological Association's response to Brown v. Board of Education: The case of Kenneth B. Clark.

In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision (1896) that was the foundation of school segregation in 17 states and the District of Columbia. Brown is arguably the most important Supreme Court decision of the 20th century in terms of its influence on American history. Moreover, it has a special significance for psychology because it marked the first time that psychological research was cited in a Supreme Court decision and because social science data were seen as paramount in the Court's decision to end school segregation. This article describes psychologist Kenneth B. Clark's role in that case and the response of the American Psychological Association to scientific psychology's moment in a great spotlight. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental involvement, psychological distress, and sleep: A preliminary examination in sleep-disturbed adolescents with a history of substance abuse.

The relationships between family environment and psychological distress and between psychological distress and sleep disturbance in adolescents are well established. However, less is known about the influence of family environment on sleep disturbance. The authors' goal is to examine the effects of parental involvement on psychological distress and sleep disturbance in 34 adolescents with a history of substance abuse. Linear regression techniques and confidence intervals were used to test the significance of mediation analyses. Lower levels of parental involvement were associated with higher levels of psychological distress, and higher levels of psychological distress were associated with lower sleep efficiency and more time spent in bed. Follow-up analyses found that higher levels of parental involvement were associated with earlier morning arising times, when controlling for psychological distress. These data indicate that psychological distress is important to consider when examining the relationship between parental involvement and sleep in adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Community Violence, Family Conflict, and Preschoolers' Socioemotional Functioning.

This study examined the relations among family conflict, community violence, and young children's socioemotional functioning and explored how children's social cognition and mothers' psychological functioning may mediate the outcomes associated with this exposure. Mothers of 431 Head Start preschoolers completed questionnaires about their family demography, exposure to community violence, family conflict, and children's distress symptoms. Children were administered a social cognition assessment, and teachers rated their behavior. Results showed that mothers' reports of children's co-witnessing of community violence were positively associated with police department crime rates, children's distress symptoms, and teachers' ratings of aggression. A path analysis revealed that children's social awareness and mothers' depressive symptoms partially mediated the effects of community violence and family conflict on outcomes for children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)