ENVIRONMENTAL FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN METAL/COMPOSITE LAMINATES

Abstract— Flight simulation fatigue crack propagation tests with gust spectrum loading were carried out on laminates of (i) aluminium alloy 2024-T3/carbon epoxy, (ii) aluminium alloy 7475-T761/carbon-epoxy and (iii) titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V/carbon-epoxy, each with a nominal weight saving of 30% as compared to equivalent 2024-T3 panels. The performance of the 2024-T3/carbon-epoxy laminates was much superior to those of the other material combinations. Overall, there was a fairly strong effect of changing from an environment of normal air to an air plus water spray environment. Probable reasons for this strong effect are discussed.     

TIME-DEPENDENT FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH IN TITANIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Abstract The interaction of fatigue and creep in a titanium metal matrix composite was studied by employing loading frequencies of 10 Hz (in both air and vacuum environment) and 0.1 Hz with and without hold times (in air) at 500°C. It was shown that, for the same loading frequency, the crack growth rate is lower in vacuum than in air. In an air environment, however, where the influence of load-related creep and environmental effects exist, it was shown that a decrease in the loading frequency leads to a decrease in the crack growth rate. This behavior is interpreted in terms of the redistribution of fiber and matrix stresses occurring in response to the creep-related relaxation of matrix stresses. The result of this stress redistribution is the generation of a compressive axial residual stress in the matrix phase in the region of the composite ahead of the crack tip. As the crack bridges the fibers in this region, the release of the matrix residual compressive stress leads to the closure of the matrix fractured surfaces at the crack tip, thus leading to a decrease in the crack tip driving force. To support this concept, experimental measurements of the crack opening displacement at different loading frequencies are presented. In addition, a simple model is proposed to describe the nature of the residual stresses developed in the matrix phase during cyclic loading. Results of this model have been examined using finite element analysis. The influence of time-dependent effects during a fatigue cycle was, furthermore, investigated by carrying out high frequency fatigue tests on specimens which have been previously subjected to creep deformation. Results of these tests in terms of the crack growth rate and associated crack closure, support the conclusion that a predeformed matrix produces a decrease in the crack growth rate of the corresponding composite.     

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELLING OF LOW VELOCITY IMPACT DAMAGE IN COMPOSITE LAMINATES

The modelling of the behaviour of laminates during low velocity impact requires, first, an analysis of the efficiency of the numerical tool used. A logical development in relation to the numerical structure of the code and the experimental observations is proposed. Four aspects of the code implementation are discussed. The first one is the representation of the impact loading by a macro-contact model using the Lagrange multiplier technique. The second is the development of this technique on the meso-scale to represent the assembly of plies of the laminate. The third step is the modelling of the evolution of the non homogeneous cracked state in the composite with an averaging technique, based on the Laws–Dvorak–Hejazi model, developed on the finite element scale. The fourth step is the modelling of the delamination between plies as a lack of contact set off by a mixed criterion matrix-cracking/interfacial forces. Numerical results on a glass-epoxy [02/906/02] laminate impacted at 27 J are in a good agreement with experimental observations.     

MODELLING THE CONDITIONS FOR FATIGUE FAILURE IN METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

Abstract— An investigation on the fatigue crack growth (FCG) and fatigue failure in metal matrix composites (MMCs) has been conducted using a model based on micromechanical elasto-plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM) principles. To evaluate the model, comparisons between experimental and predicted fatigue life have been made for two silicon carbide strengthened (SCS)-6/Ti-based MMCs. Conditions for crack arrest and crack instability have also been considered in order to define the fatigue damage limits. Crack arrest occurs from the added effects of fibre bridging and the constraint provided by the fibre on matrix microplasticity, while crack instability is achieved when the fibre constraint effect is minimum and the fatigue resistance of the material is reduced due to the accumulation of fatigue damage. Comparisons of the predicted fatigue damage limits with experimental results show good agreement which underlines the usefulness of a microstructural fracture mechanics model.     

A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR PREDICTING FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH RATES IN FIBRE-REINFORCED METAL LAMINATES

This paper is concerned with the development and application of an analytical model for predicting fatigue crack growth in fibre-reinforced metal laminates (FRMLs). An analytical model for the distribution of bridging traction is first introduced. Based upon observations of the delamination shapes in FRMLs under fatigue loading and a model for characterizing delamination growth in FRMLs, a model for predicting crack growth rates in CCT specimens of FRMLs is developed. The model is applied to two GLARE laminates (2/1, 3/2 lay-ups) under various cyclic stress levels and stress ratios. The predicted crack growth rates are compared with experimental data. The predicted crack growth rates agree well with the experimental results.     

LIQUID PHASE SINTERED METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Iron-base and aluminum-base composite materials reinforced with various ceramic particulates have been fabricated via powder metallurgy and liquid phase sintering. The advantage of this manufacturing route is that conventional powder metallurgy processing equipment can be used to fabricate metal matrix/ceramic composites. Furthermore, this approach makes it possible to manufacture these composites to near-net-shape. A number of matrix/ceramic combinations have been examined: Fe-C-Si and Fe-Cu with ZrO₂ additions and a Al-Cu-Si-Mg alloy with SiC or Al₂O₃ additions. The interfacial structures were characterized and found to play a significant role in controlling the properties of the composites. Reinforcement was observed in several systems. However, a glassy interfacial layer forms when Si additions and oxide reinforcements are present; the resultant particle/matrix bond strength is weak and reinforcement.     

FATIGUE OF A PARTICULATE REINFORCED ALUMINIUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE SUBJECTED TO AXIAL, TORSIONAL AND COMBINED AXIAL/TORSIONAL LOADING CONDITIONS

Abstract— The goals in this research were to analytically and experimentally investigate the fatigue behavior of a particulate reinforced metal matrix composite subjected to axial, torsional and combined axial/torsional loadings. A series of fully-reversed uniaxial, torsional and combined axial/torsional fatigue tests were performed on a 6061/Al₂O₃/20p-T6 metal matrix composite material. This research investigated the ability of the Fatemi-Kurath and the Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) damage parameters to correlate the experimentally obtained fatigue life data and also to represent the fatigue life using uniaxial strain-life constants. The Fatemi-Kurath damage parameter correlated the experimental fatigue data from all loading cases better than the SWT damage parameter. Using uniaxial strain-life constants, both damage parameters predicted fairly reasonable fatigue life calculations for the intermediate fatigue lives (10³ to 10⁴ cycles to failure), while producing non-conservative results for the shorter fatigue lives (< 10³ cycles to failure).     

ELASTIC BRIDGING FOR MODELING FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN A FIBER-REINFORCED TITANIUM MATRIX COMPOSITE

Abstract— A model based upon linear elastic bridging and fiber crack tip shielding is proposed for predicting fatigue crack growth in a SCS-6/Ti-6–4 composite. The model is characterized by the fiber/matrix debond length rather than the fiber/matrix interfacial frictional shear strength used in most current fatigue models. Finite elements combined with fracture mechanics are applied for computing the local stress intensity. The local stress intensity in the matrix is then utilized to predict crack growth in the composite via comparison to monolithic fatigue crack propagation data for a similar Ti-6–4 matrix material.     

LIFE PREDICTION OF CROSS-PLY METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES UNDERGOING THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE

A life prediction model that was originally developed for the axial loading of unidirectional metal matrix composites (MMCs) undergoing combined thermal and mechanical loading is extended to the axial loading of cross-ply MMCs by adding an internally initiated matrix fatigue damage term. This new term accounts for the growth of cracks that initiate at the location where fibre–matrix separation occurs in the transversely-oriented plies. A comparison of the model predictions to experimental data on SCS-6/Timetal 21S shows that the model reasonably accounts for the dependence of applied stress, temperature and environment, as well as cyclic frequency. The dominant damage accumulation process for cross-ply MMCs with weak fibre–matrix bonds is described by this internally initiated matrix fatigue damage process for most stress–temperature cycle combinations. However, the fibre-dominated damage accumulation process operates under in-phase TMF when both stress and temperature are high. Environment-enhanced matrix fatigue is the dominant damage accumulation process under isothermal fatigue when stress is low and temperature is high.     

复合材料层合板低速冲击损伤容限的改进方法和影响因素

依据笔者在这方面的研究和前人的工作,以及现有各种改进炭纤维增强树脂基复合材料冲击性能的方法,分析和总结了复合材料层合结构冲击损伤以及损伤容限,其中主要是冲击后压缩强度的重要影响因素,并且讨论了这些因素的作用。     

SCALING AND MULTIFRACTAL CHARACTER OF MATRIX CRACKING IN CARBON FIBRE-REINFORCED CROSS-PLY LAMINATES

SUMMARY

The paper presents the interpretation of the experimental data on the matrix cracking in the carbon fibre-reinforced epoxy laminates under tensile cyclic loading. The conception of the characteristic damage state is verified in terms of the temporal scaling of matrix cracking. Additional information on the character of the cracks' distribution along the axis of the specimen is obtained by utilization of the concept of multifractals. The proposed procedure of the experimental data treatment is applied for the various loading histories and composite structures (stacking order). The ways of the utilization of obtained characteristics in mechanical models of matrix cracking is discussed.     

EVOLUTION OF TRANSVERSE MATRIX CRACKING IN CROSS-PLY LAMINATES

The objective of this paper is to develop a micromechanics model for the onset and subsequent multiplication of transverse cracks in the 90° layers of a cross-ply laminate under uniaxial tension. The micromechanics study of transverse matrix cracking is performed by a combination of finite element and analytical analyses. Based on the Griffith fracture criterion, the evolution of transverse matrix crack density is predicted. The prediction compares well with existing experimental data in the literature. Analytical expressions of the non-linear effective stress–strain curves are also obtained for a wide range of material systems. In addition, an analytical expression of the effective stiffness is derived based on the differential self-consistent method. The analytical results agree very well with the finite element calculations.     

层合板中压电作动器最优厚度和嵌入位置研究

研究了压电结构中压电片厚度和嵌入深度的优化问题。首先给出了压电层合板的高阶耦合分析模型;然后以不受约束的含压电铺层复合材料板为代表,在压电层厚度方向施加电场时板自由变形,假设板任意微元横截面上内力为零,以其弯(扭)曲曲率最大为优化目标,建立了求解压电片最优厚度和嵌入深度问题的约束优化模型。最后分别以各向同性板中嵌入各项同性压电片和复合材料板中嵌入各向异性压电片为例进行了分析,绘出了目标函数的三维曲面图及等高线图,结果表明压电片的作动效能与其厚度和嵌入位置密切相关,而最优厚度和嵌入位置是由压电片和基体的材料特性决定的。     

A MECHANISTIC-BASED THERMOMECHANICAL FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTION MODEL FOR METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

The framework for developing a mechanistic-based life prediction model for metal matrix composites is described. For a composite consisting of unidirectional silicon carbide fibers in a titanium aluminide matrix, SCS-6/Ti-24A1-1INb (at%) [0]₈, three dominant damage mechanisms were identified: (1) matrix fatigue damage, (2) surface-initiated environmental damage, and (3) fiber-dominated damage. Damage expressions were developed for each mechanism along with a method for determining the constants. The damage is summed to obtain the total life. The model is capable of making predictions for a wide range of histories, including isothermal fatigue at different frequencies and stress-ratios, thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) under in-phase and out-of-phase cycling conditions, thermal cycling at constant stress, and stress holds at either maximum or minimum stress. Considering the wide range of cyclic conditions, the predictions compare favorably with experiments. In addition, the controlling damage mechanism for each history is predicted.     

INITIATION AND PROPAGATION OF SHORT FATIGUE CRACKS IN A WELD METAL

Abstract— Fatigue tests were performed using a purpose designed triangular shaped specimen to investigate the initiation and propagation of short fatigue cracks in a weld metal. It was observed that short fatigue cracks evolved from slip bands and were predominantly within ferrite grains. As the test progressed, the short crack density increased with minor changes in crack length. The growth of short cracks, in the early stage resulted mainly from coalescence with other existing cracks. The mechanism of short crack behaviour is discussed.     

SURFACE DAMAGE AND NEAR-THRESHOLD FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH IN A Ni-BASE SUPERALLOY IN VACUUM

Abstract— Fatigue crack growth rate tests have been performed on Nimonic AP1, a powder formed Ni-base superalloy, in air and vacuum at room temperature. These show that threshold values are higher, and near-threshold (faceted) crack growth rates are lower, in vacuum than in air, although at high growth rates, in the "structure-insensitive" regime, R -ratio and a dilute environment have little effect. Changing the R -ratio from 0.1 to 0.5 in vacuum does not alter near-threshold crack growth rates very much, despite more extensive secondary cracking being noticeable at R = 0.5.
In vacuum, rewelding occurs at contact points across the crack as Δ K falls. This leads to the production of extensive fracture surface damage and bulky fretting debris, and is thought to be a significant contributory factor to the observed increase in threshold values.     

SiCp/Fe复合材料断口分析

应用SEM和EDS等分析技术对SiCp／Fe金属基复合材料的断口形貌进行了研究。结果表明，SiCp／Fe在l100℃烧结时发生界面反应生成硅铁和石墨而恶化界面结构和材料性能；在1050℃烧结能避免界面反应，其界面结构为机械啮合型，复合材料呈韧性断口形貌特征，以基体撕裂为主，产生撕裂棱；裂纹易沿SiCp／Fe界面扩展，SiCp涂覆金属镀层通过镍与铁基体扩散结合来改善SiCp／Fe界面结合，提高材料的强度、韧性及耐磨性。     

AXIAL FATIGUE OF ADHESIVELY-BONDED LAMINATES

Abstract Fatigue tests with axial tension loading ( R = 0.1) have been performed on aluminum alloy laminates having 8 and 22 layers. The laminates were similar to those previously reported for bending fatigue, having 7075–T6 layers joined by Hysol EA9410 epoxy. Both unnotched and notched (K _t = 2.42) specimens were tested.
Fatigue lifetimes for both 8- and 22-layer laminates were significantly less than for monolithic specimens tested for comparison, the differences increasing as the maximum stress decreased. This was true for both the notched and unnotched tests and is the reverse of the trends previously found in bending. While the unexpected inferiority of laminates in tension fatigue appears to be at least partially a result of material variability, it is also evident that changing the type of loading can have unpredictable effects on the comparative fatigue performance of laminates. For both unnotched and notched laminates, different layers continued to crack at different locations, demonstrating the uncoupled nature of the fatigue process in the various layers.     

压电复合材料层板弱界面力-电-热多场耦合研究

压电复合材料层合结构界面缺陷的物理描述呈现出多场耦合现象。界面弹性场由位移跃变与横向应力的关系来描述;界面温度场由温度跃变与横向位移跃变的经验公式来描述;界面电场分别由电可导通假设、电不可导通假设和电半可导通假设来描述,获取了界面位移、温度和电势跃变的线性表达。基于这些界面假设,得到了柱面弯曲简支压电复合材料层板的力-电-热多场耦合解。算例表明,不同的界面电学假设对弹性场的影响有限,对电场的影响显著,其中电不可导通假设在各种载荷下均产生最大的界面电势跃变。算例提供的数值结果可作为后续研究比较之用。