Fusion simulation of electrofusion polyethylene joints for gas distribution

Fusion simulation is one of the key techniques used in designing and producing electrofusion joints for gas distribution and in evaluating fusion joint integrity. This paper describes the results of numerical simulation of the thermal fusion process, using the finite element method. A nonlinear heat transfer computer program was used to obtain the temperature profile of an electrofusion joint at fusion. It was found that the temperature experimentally measured at the fusion interface by insertion of a thermocouple agreed with the temperature computed by fusion simulation. In addition, as both the temperature at the fusion interface and the resin temperature close to the wire corresponding to the mechanical strength of the fusion part were measured, it was confirmed that the proper heating conditions for each joint could be determined based on the results of the fusion simulation.     

聚乙烯电熔接头管材熔融区深度与焊接性能关系研究

在聚乙烯管道电熔焊接过程中,形成接头强度主要取决于套筒和管材界面聚乙烯高分子链的扩散缠结阶段经历的时间,该时间与熔焊区扩展到管材内部的熔融区深度存在一定的对应关系。为探索聚乙烯电熔接头管材熔融区深度与接头焊接性能的关系,提出了一种管材熔融区深度的超声测量方法,开展了管材熔融区深度测量和焊接性能试验。结果表明,管材熔融区深度与界面焊接强度有明确的关联,管材熔融区深度在一定范围内时,就能保证基本的剥离强度值和界面韧性;在此基础上提出一种以管材熔融区深度确定电熔接头焊接时间的新方法,该方法充分考虑到环境温度、焊接电压、电阻丝电阻等各种偏差,更能适应实际工程。     

Evaluation of polybutene electrofusion joint performance

This paper describes methods of evaluating polybutene electrofusion joints and results of mechanical strength measurements for an electrofusion joint. Suitable fusion conditions were determined qualitatively through measurement of fusion interface temperatures and observation of the fusion zone. A method of determining standard fusion conditions, based on the relation between heating time and tensile strength, is also indicated. Differences in thermal properties between polybutene and polyethylene resins are discussed. It was found that polybutene required less supplied power per unit fusion area for suitable fusion. It was also confirmed that an electrofusion joint required a cold zone.     

Defects classification and failure modes of electrofusion joint for connecting polyethylene pipes

As electrofusion (EF) technology is widely used in connecting polyethylene (PE) pipes and other plastic pipes or composite pipes, research in safety assessment of EF joints has been of major concern. EF joints with defects are very common in practical applications. These defects may greatly reduce the mechanical performance of the EF joints and threat safety running of the pipeline system. To evaluate hazard of these defects and provide a basic understanding for the failure mechanism of EF joints, a comprehensive study on defects and failure modes is conducted in this work. The defects in EF joints are classified into four categories: poor fusion interface, over welding, voids, and structural deformity. The forming reasons of these defects are analyzed in detail. The mechanical properties of EF joint containing these defects are investigated by conducting peeling tests and sustained hydraulic pressure tests. Test results show that there are three main failure mode of EF joint under inner pressure, that is, cracking through the fusion interface, cracking through the fitting, and cracking through copper wire interface. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Investigation of appropriate cooling times for electrofusion jointing of PE pipes for gas distribution

This study evaluates three types of fusion zones between electrofusion (EF) joints and pipes that were laid underground after three different cooling times following fusion. The study establishes the relationship between the cooling time and the fusion performance. The object was to determine an appropriate cooling time for EF jointing. Only a slight difference was observed in the molecular structure, e.g., the degree of crystallinity, while distinct differences were observed in deformation, morphology, and tensile creep strength. Based on these results, the effect of a temperature profile during the cooling process on the fusion zone was simulated. The simulation showed that the state of the fusion zone (melting, semi‐solid, or solid) when the pipe was laid underground was the main factor affecting the tensile creep strength, i.e. long‐term performance. These analyses provided criteria for choosing an appropriate cooling time.     

A review of the electrofusion joining process for polyethylene pipe systems

Electrofusion joining is now an essential and widely used method to assist in the creation of polyethylene pressure pipe systems. The process of electrofusion joining is reviewed by examining the experimental and some computer simulation literature relating to the temperature and melt pressure changes during the fusion process, and on how varying fusion time and pipe/fitting gap influences the strength of electrofusion joints. From this literature review, four key stages in the joining process are identified. First, an incubation period where the joint has no strength. Second, a joint formation and consolidation stage where an increasing joint temperature aids molecular diffusion to both increase the joint strength and promote a more ductile mode of failure. A plateau region then follows where the joint strength, and ductility, remain reasonably constant despite the fusion time increasing. This plateau is thought to allow some welding variables, such as gap, to have only a small influence on joint strength (for gap maintained within reasonable limits). Finally there is a cooling stage where the joint bridging “tie molecules” become locked into either side of the joint. It is these tie molecules that give the joint its ductility and strength. The concluding section of the review notes some of the important on-site practices that, if followed, allow electrofusion joints to acquire their good strength properties, and hence give polyethylene pressure pipe systems of a high integrity.     

Test methodology for the determination of optimum fusion welding conditions of polyethylene

The fusion welding behavior of a medium density polyethylene resin has been studied for a wide range of heating rates using a recently developed test methodology. With this method, the thermal and physical phenomena occurring at the interface of two thin polyethylene pieces assembled by fusion can be studied. It consists of a thermal welding phase and a phase of mechanical separation of the welded assembly. For the mechanical phase, an adaptation of the T-peel test was used. These conditions make it possible to determine the thermal welding parameters (temperature, time) for optimal mechanical quality of the joint, according to a criterion established by optimization of the peel test used. The variations in minimum temperature required for an optimum weld, as a function of heating rate, can be simulated with a numerical model based on the concept of macromolecular interdiffusion. Consistent with the experimental behavior, the numerical model involves two parameters characteristic of the diffusion behavior of the polyethylene resin. Thus, these parameters characterize the weldability of the polyethylene resin under study.     

聚乙烯及其复合管道安全检测与评价方法

聚乙烯及其复合管道广泛应用于油气输送、城市燃气等能源领域,其安全性至关重要。焊接接头的安全检测及评价是聚乙烯及其复合管道系统安全的关键技术。介绍了聚乙烯管道焊接接头的无损检测原理及方法、冷焊检测技术以及缺陷分类与失效模式三方面内容。对电熔和热熔焊接接头分别采用超声相控阵和耦合聚焦技术进行超声检测,并给出了缺陷剖切与检测结果的对比图。提出了物理概念清晰、工程应用方便的冷焊超声检测方法。将电熔接头中的缺陷分为熔合面缺陷、孔洞、结构畸变和过焊。分别对含不同类型和大小缺陷的电熔接头进行力学性能测试,发现电熔接头存在三种典型的失效模式,即沿电熔套筒壁贯穿裂纹失效、熔合面失效以及沿电阻丝所在平面贯穿裂纹失效。根据试验测试与理论分析结果,提出了相应的安全评定方法。所提出的方法,填补了国内外在聚乙烯管道安全检测与评价方法方面的技术空白,提高了燃气管道的本质安全性。     

Investigation of the effects of nonisothermal suspension polymerization of vinyl chloride on the fusion and degradation behavior of poly(vinyl chloride)

Thermal stability of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) samples polymerized under a temperature trajectory was studied from the point of view of morphological and microstructural characteristics. The results are compared with those of the PVC samples obtained by polymerization at constant temperature having the same K value. The Brabender^® plastograph data indicated that the final PVC synthesized with the temperature trajectory showed lower fusion time and higher thermal stability time. The nonisothermal condition also increased the degree of fusion of the final PVC resin, reflecting lower temperature/time required to process it. It was found that the thermal stability of nonisothermally produced PVC as characterized by dehydrochlorination rate decreased (improved) with the increasing monomer conversion until a minimum value was reached that corresponded to the conversion at the pressure drop. However, the dehydrochlorination rate remains almost constant with conversion for an isothermal grade PVC resin. Although the evolution of the number of internal double bonds as well as extent of discoloration of PVC with conversion shows a decreasing trend, the labile chlorine concentration exhibits a maximum at early conversion. The reason for the former can be explained by the temperature dependence of reactions forming defect structures, which are kinetically controlled and thus favored at higher temperatures. The latter, however, can be explained because of the increasing importance of transfer reactions to polymer with increasing polymer concentration. Finally, the results from differential thermogravimetry verify an improvement in thermal stability of the final PVC prepared by using a temperature trajectory during vinyl chloride monomer suspension polymerization. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 23:259–266, 2017. © 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Numerical and experimental study of the electrofusion welding process of polyethylene pipes

The electrofusion welding process is widely used to join polyethylene components in gas distribution networks. This article provides experimental and 3D‐finite element tools capable of reproducing the major phenomena that occur during an electrofusion process. A specific version of the 3D‐ finite element model simulation software Forge® has been developed to take into account the fitting parameters such as polyethylene thermal properties (i.e., melting and crystallization kinetics, phase transition, and thermal contact resistance) and the electrical and geometrical settings (i.e., welding input parameters). From a numerical point of view, a well refined highly anisotropic mesh adaptation is applied to well capture the contact condition between the heat source and the polyethylene. The computed results (temperature, melted, and cold areas) were compared with experimental data and gave very good agreement in terms of temperature and liquid phase fraction distribution. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 55:123–131, 2015. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Meaningful evaluation of plastisol gelation and fusion temperatures by dynamic mechanical analysis

In most PVC plastisol processing operations, gelation and fusion characteristics of the plastisol are critically important. For example, in chemically foamed plastisols, plastisol fusion temperature and blowing agent decomposition temperature must be carefully coordinated. In rotomolded parts, rates of gelation may determine the quality of the finished parts. For plastisol products made by any process, the final fusion temperature determines the processing temperatures required to give the finished product acceptable mechanical properties. For a variety of reasons, the methods commonly used to characterize plastisol gelation and fusion (hot bar test, resin in plasticizer clear point, torque rheometer measurements, etc.) provide comparisons between plastisols but do not provide temperatures that are easily related to actual industrial processes. With dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), one can characterize, under low shear conditions, the temperatures at which gelation begins, gelation ends, and complete fusion occurs. Additionally, it is possible to record plastisol viscosities (and other dynamic mechanical properties) over the processing temperature range. We used a multiple linear regression program to analyze the DMA data for plastisols heated from 30 to 210°C and containing either 70, 80 or 90 phr of Jayflex dihexyl phthalate (DHP) or Jaylflex di-isodecyl phthalate (DIDP). Further, we determined the plasticizer phr dependence and the reproducibility of gel and fusion temperatures given by data analyzed in this manner. Finally, for comparison, we analyzed the reproducibility of initial and final plastisol gel temperatures and fusion temperatures, which were determined by visually analyzing the DMA data for plastisols containing 70, 80, and 90 phr of Jyflex plasticizers DHP, Jayflex 77, diisononyl phthalate (DINP), and DIDP. Precise characterization of plastisol gelation and fusion behavior will, undoubtedly, facilitate substitution of plastisol ingredients as is often required by those who manufacture and process plastisols.     

热聚合-氧化法制备高β树脂改性沥青

以中温沥青为原料,通过溶剂萃取沉降分离获得低喹啉不溶物含量(QI<0.1%)的精制沥青。对精制沥青进行热聚合-空气氧化改性处理,得到高β树脂含量的改性沥青。经特定热聚合条件处理后,研究了空气氧化阶段的反应温度、氧化时间和空气流量对沥青改性的影响。实验结果表明,在空气氧化阶段,当氧化温度为280℃,氧化时间为2h,空气流量为0.04m³/h时,可以获得软化点为220℃、甲苯不溶物为61.59% 、喹啉不溶物为4.35%、结焦值为78.44%,β树脂含量为57.24%的优质改性沥青。     

萘-萘酚-苯甲醛沥青树脂的合成研究

在浓硫酸的催化作用下,采用阳离子聚合法在萘-苯甲醛二元组分沥青树脂分子链上引入了萘酚分子,合成了萘-萘酚-苯甲醛三元组分沥青树脂。用FT-IR光谱仪表征了合成树脂的结构。通过单因素实验,考察了合成条件对沥青树脂软化点、结焦值和黏结强度等黏结性能的影响规律。实验结果表明,合成萘-萘酚-苯甲醛沥青树脂适宜的工艺条件:萘、萘酚和苯甲醛的物质的量比为0.67∶0.33∶1,反应温度为160℃,反应时间为300 min,催化剂用量为10%。在此条件下,合成沥青树脂的软化点为87.5℃,结焦值为32.1%,黏结强度为41.1。改变反应体系中萘酚的物质的量,能获得具有不同黏结性能的萘-萘酚-苯甲醛三元组分沥青树脂。     

三聚甲醛-煤沥青COPNA树脂的合成及复合性能研究

以煤沥青为原料、三聚甲醛为交联剂,在对甲苯磺酸的催化作用下合成缩合多环多核芳香烃（COPNA）树脂。采用FT—IR和H—NMR研究其反应机理;采用TG研究了COPNA树脂的热行为。研究表明,煤沥青能与三聚甲醛合成COPNA树脂,其反应机理为酸催化下的阳离子型缩聚反应;相对于原料煤沥青,COPNA树脂具有较高的耐热性、炭收率和β树脂含量。将COPNA树脂与石墨复合,并考察了焙烧温度和COPNA树脂含量对复合材料的体积密度、硬度、抗折强度和电阻率的影响。     

Influence of organic sulfur compounds and metals on mesophase formation

The influence of organic sulfur compounds and metals on the texture of the mesophase formed in pitch during the carbonization process was investigated by the addition of organic sulfur compounds and organometallic compounds to the cracked oil obtained from Khafji asphalt and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pitch. These pitches, containing sulfur and metals, have been examined by polarised light microscopy, and quinoline insolubles (QI), sulfur and metal contents were determined. The existence of either organic sulfur compounds or organometallic compounds in the pitch has no effect on mesophase texture. However, the coexistence of sulfur and metals (such as vanadium or nickel) has a great effect on mesophase texture. From these results, sulfur and metals coexisting in the pitch have a catalytic effect which activates the thermal decomposition and the thermal polymerization reactions of the pitch. Furthermore, the precursors of mesophase (β resin) are formed abundantly in the pitch by these reactions. These precursors promote the nucleation of mesophase spherules, and a large number of mesophase spherules are formed in the pitch at the same time. Therefore, these spherules coalesce with each other before growing to large spheres and lead to a fine mosaic texture.     

Rheokinetic of a gelled resol resin curing by dynamic‐temperature rheometry based on rectangular torsion strain

The rheological behavior of a phenolic resol resin during its curing process was studied through a rheological dynamic‐temperature analysis. Two heating ramps from 0 to 120°C (1°C/min) and from 0 to 150°C (5°C/min) were performed. The resin's complex viscosity data were obtained by applying a rectangular torsion strain. The overall change of complex viscosity with temperature was due to a combination of thermal softening, described by the Andrade equation, and the resin crosslinking process. The four‐ and six‐parameter Arrhenius rheokinetic model was applied to the profiles obtained for the resin's complex viscosity, and the viscous flow and activation energies of curing kinetics were established. Two calculation methods are proposed to obtain the flow and curing parameters of the material. The six‐parameter Arrhenius model was more suitable for predicting changes in the resin's complex viscosity, obtaining an activation energy of ～ 38.0 kJ/mol for the resol resin curing process. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Propagation of solid flame along a wire rolled in spiral

Propagation of solid flame along a wire rolled in spiral was explored theoretically. Besides conductive heat transfer along the wire, a contribution from relay-race heat exchange between neighboring spiral loops was taken into account. Combustion of spiral was found to occur in a mode of pseudo-conductive or pseudo-spinning combustion. In the former case, the temperature profile of combustion was close to that in a straight wire. A contribution from relay-race heat transfer between spiral loops can be taken into account as an elevated thermal diffusivity of wire. A specific feature of pseudo-spinning combustion is the formation of a hot spot with a temperature exceeding the thermodynamic combustion temperature. Variation in a pitch and length of spiral loop can be readily used to regulate the temperature and burning velocity of spiral combustion.     

固化体系对环氧树脂耐高温性能的影响

针对覆铜板的耐高温要求,分别使用胺类固化剂4,4′-二氨基二苯砜(DDS)、4,4′-二氨基二苯醚(DDE)和乙二胺(EDA)固化改性双酚A型环氧树脂,研制适用于耐高温覆铜板的环氧树脂固化物。用示差扫描量热法(DSC)研究其固化过程,讨论了固化剂用量、固化剂种类及固化温度等因素对固化物玻璃化转变温度(Tg)的影响。实验结果表明,固化物耐热性最好的配比不是化学计量,而是偏离化学计量,在理论用量的基础上适当增加固化剂用量,可有效地提高固化产物的玻璃化温度Tg值;使用芳香胺类固化剂固化双酚A型环氧树脂,其固化产物有较高的玻璃化温度,可以满足覆铜板耐高温的要求。     

Adhesion and rheological properties of EVA-based hot-melt adhesives

Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers of various melt indexes were blended with aromatic hydrocarbon resin in the molten state, and the thermal and adhesion properties as hot-melt adhesives (HMAs) were investigated. The thermal properties for the EVA blends with aromatic hydrocarbon resin were studied using differential scanning calorimeter, Brookfield viscometer and dynamic mechanical thermal analyzer. Their adhesion strength was also obtained using single lap shear strength. The examination of thermal properties for the blend of EVA copolymers with aromatic hydrocarbon resin over a large temperature range showed that the glass transition temperature was independent of their melt index (MI), but that their heat of fusion decreased with increasing MI of EVA copolymers. Furthermore, the storage and loss moduli of the blends decreased with increasing temperature and MI of EVA copolymers, but the loss tangent (tan δ) of the blends increased. An increase in the MI of EVA copolymers decreased the adhesion strength of the blend at the same test condition.     

The joining of biaxially oriented polyethylene pipes

Die-drawing techniques recently developed at Leeds University make it possible to produce oriented polymer tubes with both axial draw and hoopwise expansion. These products have increased axial stiffness, improved barrier properties, and excellent resistance to chemical reagents. Normally mechanical methods are used to join such tubes in order to preserve their orientation: however we show that electrofusion techniques produce joints of strengths such that in tensile tests, failure always occurs in the fittings, not at the joint interfaces. Optical and electron microscopy reveal different zones in the welds and indicate that only 20 percent of the wall thickness is affected by the electrofusion process. The pipe studied was biaxially drawn medium density polyethylene of outside diameter 63 mm with draw ratios of 4 in the axial direction and 2, inner hoop. Optimum welding conditions were determined using socket and saddle electrofusion fittings. The joints did not fail in a standard crush test. Careful control of welding parameters is essential in butt fusion welding when the maximum weld strength exceeds that of the undrawn polymer.