Fettsäurenaufnahme des Menschen und Möglichkeiten der Beeinflussung durch die Tierernährung

Fatty acid intake of men and possibilities to influence the intake by animal nutrition. About 70% of total fat intake (≈ 100 g per person per day) are from fat of animal origin in Germany. Animal nutrition may influence fat content and fatty acid pattern in animal products. This paper summarizes the influence of feeding on fatty acid pattern of meat (pork, beef, poultry, rabbit, fish), milk and eggs. Fatty acid intake is demonstrated under consideration of fat intake of men and variation of fatty acid pattern of various fats of animal origin. Daily fat intake of men amounted to 43 g saturated, 37 g monoen and 13 g polyen fatty acids. It may vary between 38 and 46 g saturated, 33 and 45 g monoen and 11 and 17 g polyen fatty acids if variation of fatty acid pattern of animal fats is considered. By combination of lower fat intake and changed fatty acid pattern of animal products fatty acid intake may be changed to more monoen and polyen fatty acids.     

Fettsäure-Spektren wichtiger Nahrungsfette

Fatty Acid Composition of Important Dietary Fats The recommendations issued by the German Nutrition Association (DGE) include both total fat quantities and the distribution of fatty acids in daily food intake. It is recommended that fats should account for 30% of the daily energy intake, comprising 10% each of saturated, mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. An increasing number of scientific studies are quoted according to which the chain lengths of saturated fatty acids and the stereoisomers of unsaturated fatty acids play a part in raising the blood cholesterol level. Examples are given of both vegetable oils and fats and a animal and “hidden” fats. Recommendations from DGE for fat intake and fatty acid composition in fat in Germany are not reached yet. The fat intake has to be reduced.     

Die prozentuale Zusammensetzung der freien Fettsäuren im Vergleich zum Fettsäuremuster nach Verseifung (Gesamtfettsäuren) bei einigen frischen und gelagerten tierischen Lebensmitteln

Percent Composition of Free Fatty Acids of a Few Fresh and Stored Animal Food Products in Comparison to Their Fatty Acid Pattern after Saponification Depot fat and muscle fat of fresh and stored chickens as well as beef tallow and milk fat were analysed after saponification by gas-liquid chromatography as their methyl esters. The free fatty acids of the same fats were absorbed on alumina and examined for their composition after desorption in the same way. The amount of free fatty acids after lipolysis was not identical with the percentage of fatty acids of the fats. Palmitoleic-, oleic-, and linoleic acid showed an increase, but palmitic and stearic acid a decrease of their amounts in the liberated acids in comparison to the composition of the fatty acids of neutral fats. A remarkable amount of volatile acids could be detected in the free fatty acids only.     

Trans-Fettsäuren in Lebensmitteln

Trans Fatty Acids in Foods The fatty acid compositions of the fat in 196 german food samples were analyzed with emphasis on trans components by gas liquid chromatograghy. The range of trans fatty acids (weight percent of methyl esters) in several foods was: margarines 0.6 - 23.5%, shortenings 0.1 - 31.8%, french fried potatoes 508 - 32.8%, cakes and cookies 0 - 15.5%, candies and frostings 0.2 - 15.7%, Crisps and other snacks 0.1 - 20.2%, animal and dairy fats from ruminants. 1.5 - 10.6%, other meat products animals and sausages less than 1%. Teh composition of trans fatty acids differed between hydrogenated fats and ruminant fats. Food processing (except hydrogenation) did not substantially alter the fatty acid composition. The daily intake of trans fatty acids in Germany was estimated by the National Consumption Assay. women consumed 3.4 g/day and men 4.1 g/day. Hydrogenated fats and ruminant fats contributed to the consumption nearly equally. Trans fatty acids influence the plasma lipoprotein levels similarly to saturated fatty acids. The trans fatty acids appear mostly as monounsaturated fatty acids in food composition tables. It seems necessary to distinguish between cis and trans isomers.     

Die Zusammensetzung tierischer Organ- und Depotfette in Abhängigkeit von der Fütterung III: Gas-chromatographische Analyse von Kälberfetten nach definierter Fütterung

The Composition of Animal Organ and Depot Fats in Relation to Feed III: Gas-chromatographic Analysis of Fats from Calves after Definite Feed Within the scope of the feeding experiments, which had been carried out for explaining the accumulation of trans fatty acids in animal organs, we studied the composition of mixed fatty acids of heart, kidney and liver as well as that of the corresponding depot fats with the help of gas-chromatography. The fatty acid composition of the separated neutral fat and phosphatide fractions of the organ fats are discussed.     

Medium chain triglycerides and structured lipids

Lipids are an essential component of our body composition and necessary in our daily food intake. Conventional fats and oils are composed of glycerides of long chain fatty acids and are designated as long chain triglycerides (LCT). Body fat as well as the fats and oils in our daily intake fall into this category. In enteral and parenteral hyperalimentation, we can identify such LCT fats and oils. Soy, corn, safflower and sunflowerseed oils are typical of the LCT oils. In the search for alternative noncarbohydrate fuels, medium chain triglycerides (MCT) are unique and have established themselves in the areas of malabsorption syndrome cases and infant care and as a high energy, rapidly available fuel. Structure lipids with a MCT backbone and linoleic acid built into the triglyceride molecule have been developed to optimize the triglyceride structure that is best for patients, particularly the critically ill. Structured lipids with built-in essential fatty acid components or other polyunsaturated fatty acids promise greater flexibility in patient care and nitrogen support.     

Tierische Fette in der Tierernährung

Animal Fats in Animal Nutrition Intensive feeding of several types of farm animals is unthinkable without the use of fats in feed formulations. Animal fats are, however, considered inferior to plant oils with respect to quality and energy utilization. In the practical application, only mixed fat formulations are used. Therefore, there is little chance that the absorption of fat from the gastro-intestinal tract is inhibited by the presence of relatively high proportions of saturated C₁₆ and C₁₈ fatty acids. Large proportions of fat are used in feeds for broilers and calves. Moreover, from nutritional viewpoint, the fat content of feeds for swine and laying hen could be increased, if technical devices for restricted feeding are used, which prevent excessive intake of energy. A higher content of fat in ruminant feed is also to be recommended. Since in monogastric animals the consistency of fatty tissues is influenced by unsaturated fatty acids of dietary fat, the use of animal fats having low content of unsaturated fatty acids is favorable for the quality of slaughtered products.     

Effect of PUFA at sn‐2 position in dietary triacylglycerols on the fatty acid composition of adipose tissues in non‐ruminant farm animals

The influence of the distribution of polyunsaturated fatty acids on the glycerol backbone of dietary triacylglycerols on the fatty acid profile of adipose tissue and muscle phospholipids was investigated in growing‐finishing pigs (48) and broiler chicken (84). The animals were fattened on barley/soybean meal diets supplemented with a blend of soybean oil and beef tallow, either in the ratio 3:1 w/w (high‐PUFA) or 1:3 w/w (low‐ PUFA). Part of the high‐ and low‐PUFA blends was chemically interesterified to randomly distribute all fatty acids over the three positions of the glycerol. Thus, two sets of diets of identical overall fatty acid composition, but differing in the distribution of fatty acids in the triacylglycerols, were fed. Growth performance and carcass composition were neither affected by fatty acid composition nor by randomisation of dietary fats in either animal species. Apparent digestibility of energy was slightly lower in pigs fed the low‐PUFA blends. Fatty acid profile of subcutaneous fat of pigs and broilers as well as of internal body fat (lamina subserosa) and muscle phospholipids of pigs varied according to the dietary fatty acid composition but was not affected by randomisation of dietary fats. These findings are explained in terms of the hydrolysis of TAG during transport of lipids from enterocytes to adipose tissue cells and the continuous lipolysis and re‐esterification of fatty acids that take place in adipose tissue cells.     

Fats in indian diets and their nutritional and health implications

To arrive at fat requirements for Indians; the contribution of invisible fat should be determined. Total lipids were extracted from common Indian foods, and their fatty acid compositions were determined. This data and information on intake of various foods were used to estimate the contents of “invisible” fat and fatty acids in Indian diets. Taking into account World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines and the invisible-fat intake of Indians, recommendations were made for lower and upper limits of visible fats. In the rural poor, the “visible”-fat intakes are much lower than estimated minimum requirements. Therefore, to meet the energy needs of low-income groups, particularly young children, visible-fat intakes must be increased to recommended levels. The urban high-income group, however, should reduce dietary fat. Data on intake of various fatty acids in total diet shows that even the recommended lower limit of oil can meet linoleic acid requirements. Intake of α-linolenic acid is low, however. Increase in dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) produces hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, and antithrombotic effects. Effects of n-3 PUFA on blood lipids, platelet fatty acid composition, and platelet aggregation were therefore investigated in Indian subjects consuming cereal-based diets. Supplementation of fish oils (long-chain n-3 PUFA) as well as the use of rapeseed oil (α-linolenic acid) produced beneficial effects. Since the requirements of α-linolenic acid and/or long-chain n-3 PUFA are related to linoleic acid intake, use of more than one oil (correct choice) is recommended for providing a balanced intake of various fatty acids. Analysis of Indian food showed that some foods are good sources of α-linolenic acid. Regular consumption of these foods can also improve the quality of fat in Indian diets. Nonvegetarians, however, have the choice of eating fish to accomplish this.     

Effects of ionizing radiation on some vegetable fats

The volatile compounds produced by irradiation, under vacuum at 6 megarads, in five vegetable fats were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. A series of compounds,n-alkanes, 1-alkenes, internally unsaturated alkenes, alkadienes, alkatrienes, alkanals and methyl and ethyl esters of fatty acids, were identified in each of the fats studied. A wide variation occurs in the amounts of the volatiles produced from each fat. The major radiolytic products were few in number and were found to depend largely on the fatty acid composition of the fat. These compounds were essentially the hydrocarbons containing one or two carbon atoms less than the component fatty acids. This relationship was found consistent if radiolytic products of fats with different fatty acid compositions are compared or if the fatty acid composition of the same fat is altered by hydrogenation. The results correlate well with those of earlier studies on simple triglycerides.     

Qualitative und quantitative Untersuchung der freien Fettsäuren in Depotfetten und fetthaltigen Erzeugnissen

Qualitative and Quantitative Investigation of Free Fatty Acids in Depot Fats and Fat-Containing Products The free fatty acids (FFA) in the fat of dry sausages were adsorbed on aluminia. After elution the methylesters of the fatty acids were separated on Reoplex (400). The composition of fatty acids released from fats showed distinct differences to the composition of a fat after saponification. Myristic, palmitoleic and linoleic acid had increased in the amount expressed as percentage of fatty acids while the percentage of stearic and possibly palmitic acid had decreased in concentration. The volatile fatty acids (<14 C) increased in the fat of dry sausages, too.     

Aspekte bei der Hydrierung von Fetten und Fettsäuren

Aspects of Hydrogenation of Fats and Fatty Acids Hydrogenation of fat products is of great significance, both for human and animal nutrition as well as for technical purposes. In the area of nutrition, adequate food for the increasing world population is unthinkable without utilization of all fat resources, that can be made available as food fats only after catalytic hydrogenation. In the area of technical use, a similar development is observed owing to shortage of mineral oils. Thus, fatty alcohols derived from vegetable oils and waxes can already compete in price with fully synthetic fatty alcohols derived from mineral oils. In the past 70 years of hydrogenation of fats till the present time, catalysts based on nickel have been most commonly used. In addition, small proportions of catalysts based on copper and noble metals have also been used. Homogenous catalysts have been used very recently. The present communication deals primarily with the hydrogenation of neutral fats and fatty acids using nickel catalysts. The aspects of selectivity and isomerization in the partial hydrogenation of neutral fats are discussed. In the hydrogenation of fatty acids and their derivatives, emphasis is laid on other factors, such as activity, poisoning and acid resistance of the catalyst. These factors are discussed.     

Alteration of Endogenous Fatty Acids Profile and Lipid Metabolism in Rats Caused by a High-Colleseed Oil and a High-Sunflower Oil Diet

Dietary fat has an important influence on mammalian lipid homeostasis. However, the relationship between dietary fat types and endogenous fatty acids (FAs) in organs as well as lipid homeostasis remains unclear enough. In this study, rats are randomly divided into a control group (CN), a high-colleseed oil group (COG), and a high-sunflower oil group (SOG). FAs profile in liver and visceral fats of rats in two high-fat (HF) diet groups is compared with that in CN. Oleic, γ-linolenic, eicosadienoic, and arachidonic acid accumulate in COG liver or visceral fats, but the levels of linoleic, eicosadienoic, docosanoic, and dihomo-γ-linolenic acid decrease in COG visceral fats. However, these FAs levels increased in SOG liver or visceral fats except dihomo-γ-linolenic and arachidonic acid which changed insignificantly. The trend of initial upregulation and then downregulation of lipid metabolism-related genes expression is noted in COG liver, including stearoyl-CoA desaturase. Upregulation of adiponectin (ADPN) expression in visceral fats and downregulation of ADPN receptor 2 (Adipo-R2) expression in livers of both HF groups are observed. Correlation analysis revealed positive correlations between specific FAs content and ADPN expression level. Negative correlations are observed between Adipo-R2 expression and the content of oleic, linoleic, and γ-linolenic acid in the SOG liver. Practical applications: Dietary fat not only provides energy but is also associated with lipid homeostasis. In this work, the authors investigate the distribution of fatty acids (FAs) in vivo and their influence on genes related to lipid metabolism induced by diets enriched in oleic acid or linoleic acid. The study suggests that dietary fats modulate lipid homeostasis not only by regulating endogenous FAs levels but also by affecting the expression of genes related to lipid metabolism. This study may support the research in lipid nutrition and rational intake of dietary fat.     

Die Verdauung von Speisefetten mit Pankreaslipasen und ihre Beeinflussung durch das Fettsäuremuster

The Influence of Fatty Acids in Triglycerides on the Digestion of Dietary Fats by Pancreatic Lipase The digestion of dietary fats by pancreatic lipase was studied in in-vitro-experiments. We tested the following fats: coconut, butterfat, cocoabutter, lard and oil of corn germ. The breakdown of triglycerides was followed up by monitoring the free fatty acids and glycerol. Additionally we analyzed the fatty acid distribution by gas-liquid chromatography of triglycerides, 1,2-diglycerides and 2-monoglycerides. Fatty acids with a chain length from C₁₀C₂₀ were determined by gas chromatography. Short chain fatty acids were not regarded separately. As pancreatic lipase has a positional specificity for the 1- and 3-position of a triglyceride there is information on the distribution of fatty acids in fats and of their digestion by such experiments. For the resorption of the fatty acids it may be of a certain importance in which position it is esterified in the fat when it is hydrolysed in gut. The hydrolysis of fats used in these experiments was quite different. This can be explained by the fatty acid distribution, the chain length and by a varying rate of emulsification of fats in an aqueous phase.     

Fettchemische und petrochemische Rohstoffe - Gegensatz oder Ergänzung?

Fatchemical and Petrochemical Raw Materials - Contrast or Complementation? Fatchemical products are used in all branches of industry and crafts for a variety of purposes. The areas of application are determined by the types of fatty acids which are available as raw materials. It is shown that the C₁₈ chain length is dominant. The most commonly occurring fatty acids are oleic- and linoleic acids. Lauric acids, which is so important for the major areas of application, only represents a small fraction of the world supply of fats. The use of raw material alternatives instead of fats is explained by the relative uniformity of the fatty acid spectrum found amongst the natural fatty acids. In addition, the special place occupied by coconut oil is economically attractive. A survey of the various possibilities and processes for fatchemical products which are derived from fats and petrochemical derivatives is presented. It may be expected that further positive developments of agricultural oil. and fat-production will occur by better yields as well as by successful breeding, resulting in changes in the fat composition. In the long term it may be assumed that the range of natural fats will not only expand, but that it will also be widened by new fatty acid compositions. Petrochemical processes can also have good prospects for the future. Fatchemical and petrochemical raw materials can complement each other in a positive fashion thus enriching the spectrum of fatchemical products.     

Untersuchungen zum Nachweis von Kakaobutter-Ersatzfetten

Investigations on the Detection of Cocoa Butter Substitutes Coberine, Calvetta and other fats prepared by fractionation, as well as Tenkawang fat have a fatty acid composition which is very similar to cocoa butter. Presence of fatty acids that do not occur in cocoa butter, ratio of C₁₆/C₁₈, as well as composition of sterol fraction serve for chemical identification of the above fats.     

Zur Ernährungsphysiologie der Schlachttierfette

Nutritional Properties of Animal Fats Dietary fat plays two roles, as a carrier of energy, and, in the form of essential fatty acids, as an indispensable component of food. Animal fats can meet both requirements. Since fats are greatly accepted by the people due to their taste, the fat consumption by the entire population has been very high. High fat consumption are believed to have resulted in increased level of cholesterol and premature occurrence of coronary diseases. Increase in the incidence of deaths by coronary diseases has drawn attention to the nutritional properties of dietary fats, which affect the level of cholesterol. It has been established that saturated fatty acids in foods raise the level of serum cholesterol, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids lower it. However, with diets of relatively low fat content the ratio of saturated to polyunsaturated fatty acids is not so significant with regard to level of serum cholesterol as with high-fat diets.     

Fats in human nutrition

Summary Dietary fats represent the most compact chemical energy available to man. They contain twice the caloric value of an equivalent weight of sugar. However dietary fats should not be thought of solely as providers of unwanted calories as fats are as vital to cell structure and biological function as protein. If an individual consumes food items of high fat content, an adequate protein and vitamin intake should be assured in order to provide the lipotropic factors necessary for normal fat metabolism. It may be more judicious to control the total caloric intake under such circumstances rather than to resort to periods of semi-starvation or to drastically decrease the dietary fat intake which could result in an increase in hunger pangs and an actual increase in total caloric intake. If the excess calories furnished by carbohydrates are converted to fatin vivo, the problem of obesity could not be solved under conditions of increased total caloric intake. The problem could be solved by a curtailed intake of a diet which includes meat, milk, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and sufficient cereals and bread to provide for an adequate protein, vitamin, and caloric intake. Dietary fats provide the essential linoleic acid which seems to have both a structural and functional role in animal tissue. Although the optimum total intake of linoleic acid by man has not been established, it is evident that the level of intake in the American dietary pattern could be increased. However the indiscriminate substitution of soft for hard fats seems undesirable as an excess consumption of highly unsaturated fatty acids may change the functional value of the triglycerides in the depot fats and may put an undue stress on the antioxidant supply availablein vivo.     

Content and distribution oftrans-18:1 acids in ruminant milk and meat fats. Their importance in european diets and their effect on human milk

Thetrans-18:1 acid content and distribution in fats from ewe and goat milk, beef meat and tallow were determined by a combination of capillary gas-liquid chromatography and argentation thin-layer chromatography of fatty acid isopropyl esters. Thetrans isomers account for 4.5 ± 1.1% of total fatty acids in ewe milk fat (seven samples) and 2.7±0.9% in goat milk fat (eight samples). In both species, as in cow, the main isomer is vaccenic (trans-11 18:1) acid. The distribution profile oftrans-18:1 acids is similar among the three species. The contribution of ewe and goat milk fat to the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids was estimated for people from southern countries of the European Economic Community (EEC): France, Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. It is practically negligible for most of these countries, but in Greece, ewe and goat milk fat contributeca. 45% of the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids from all dairy products (0.63 g/person/day for a total of 1.34 g/person/day). Thetrans-18:1 acid contents of beef meat fat (ten retail cuts, lean part) and tallow (two samples) are 2.0 ± 0.9% and 4.6%, respectively, of total fatty acids (animals slaughtered in winter). Here too, the main isomer is vaccenic acid. Othertrans isomers have a distribution pattern similar to that of milk fat. Beef meat fat contributes less than one-tenth of milk fat to thetrans-18:1 acid consumed. The daily per capita intake oftrans-18:1 acids from ruminant fats is 1.3–1.8 g for people from most countries of the EEC, Spain and Portugal being exceptions (ca. 0.8 g/person/day). In France, the respective contributions of ruminant fats and margarines to the daily consumption oftrans-18:1 acids are 1.7 and 1.1 g/person/day (60 and 40% of total, respectively). These proportions, based on consumption data, were confirmed by the analysis of fat from milk of French women (ten subjects). The mean content oftrans-18:1 acids in human milk is 2.0 ± 0.6%, with vaccenic acid being the major isomer. Based on the relative levels of thetrans-16 18:1 isomer, we could confirm that milk fat is responsible for the major part of the daily intake oftrans-18:1 acids by French people. The daily individual intake oftrans-18:1 isomers from both ruminant fats and margarines for the twelve EEC countries varies from 1.5 g in Spain to 5.8 g in Denmark, showing a well-marked gradient from the southwest to the northeast of the EEC.     

Ernährungsphysiologische Wirkung unterschiedlicher Gemische von Öl-, Linol- und Linolensäure bei wachsenden Schweinen. 2. Einfluß auf Depotfette und Blutlipide

Physiological Effect of Various Mixtures of Oleic, Linoleic and Linolenic Acids on Growing Pigs: 2. Influence on Depot Fats and Blood Lipids At the end of the feeding trials described extensively in the first contribution, from all animals saddle bacon and leaf fat as well as serum lipids have been investigated on effects of the various food fats. Earlier results have been confirmed according to which the increased supply of unsaturated fatty acids results in an increase of the content in depot fat and in a decrease of palmitic and stearic acid. The storage of linoleic and linolenic acids is linked to the consumed amount of these acids in a linear way. Some hints have been found for the occurrence of yellow fat desease that besides the deficiency of vitamin E an enzyme activating effect of higher amounts of linolenic acid may be responsible. Furthermore the attacked animals showed a linear dependence of the fat content in the yellow tissue from its peroxide value. As well linolenic acid as oleic acid led to a significant decrease of the serum triglycerides. Besides, linolenic acid lowered the content of serum cholesterol, whereas linoleic acid caused a significant increase of the HDL content.