Experimental investigation of friction coefficient in tube hydroforming

The friction coefficient between tube and die in guide zone of tube hydroforming was obtained. In hydroforming, the tube is expanded by an internal pressure against the tool wall. By pushing the tube through tool, a friction force at the contact surface between the tube and the tool occurs. In guiding zone, the friction coefficients between tube and die can be estimated from the measured axial feeding forces. In expansion zone, the friction coefficients between tube and die can be evaluated from the measured geometries of expanded tubes and FE analysis.     

Experimental investigation of friction coefficient in tube hydroforming

The friction coefficient between tube and die in guide zone of tube hydroforming was obtained. In hydroforming, the tube is expanded by an internal pressure against the tool wall. By pushing the tube through tool, a friction force at the contact surface between the tube and the tool occurs. In guiding zone, the friction coefficients between tube and die can be estimated from the measured axial feeding forces. In expansion zone, the friction coefficients between tube and die can be evaluated from the measured geometries of expanded tubes and FE analysis.     

Determination of frictional behavior in sheet metals using orthogonal arrays

Frictional behavior of two sheet materials, aluminum-killed drawing-quality steel (AKDQ) and electro-galvanized (zinc) drawing-quality steel (AKDQ-EG), is examined under conditions of varying die material, die radius, crosshead speed, and lubricant. Tests are conducted using a special apparatus designed to measure front and back tension on uniform tensile strip specimens pulling over a circular die, simulating both frictionless and frictional conditions under certain sheet-metal-forming conditions. Use of a specially designed test apparatus with four contact angles for the same test condition minimizes the error associated with the use of single measurements for the determination of friction coefficient. Lubricant and die material play important roles among different factors examined in determining the coefficient of friction. Die radius has the most pronounced effect on the coefficient of friction. Implication of these results on actual sheet forming processes are discussed.     

Incremental forming by continuous bending under tension—An experimental investigation

The Continuous Bending under Tension (CBT) test has been applied to study aspects of incremental forming. Effects of experimental conditions like speed and bending angle have been studied in particular. The results illustrate an essential aspect of incremental sheet forming (ISF): localized deformation. The actual bending radius is the most important influencing factor and this turns out to be controlled by both the pulling force and the bending angle (depth setting). Material thickness had only a minor effect. The maximum elongation before fracture of mild steel was significantly better than that of aluminium. The material is subjected to additional repetitive bending; this does affect material behaviour in general. The aspects of bending under tension as a governing mechanism in incremental sheet forming are discussed.     

Extrusion of an aluminum alloy prepared from rapidly solidified powder

A study on powder extrusion is attempted to extend the understanding of the extrusion process and the interrelationship between process variables and forces involved. The extrusion characteristics of a promising Al-Si alloy produced from rapidly solidified powder, and the effects of such variables as temperature, reduction ratio, and die geometry on extrusion pressure and friction force have been investigated. Results show that extrusion starts prior to the attainment of a peak pressure. The friction force between the billet and lubricated container occupies only about 4.5% of the peak pressure. This friction is therefore not principally responsible for the pressure drop of about 50% from a peak value to a steady state occurring during extrusion—a finding which is in conflict with the traditional understanding of extrusion. It is also found that temperature-compensated strain rate Z can satisfactorily reflect the combined effects of the process variables on the pressure requirement. The relationship between the Z parameter and the pressure required for the extrusion of the powdered metal (PM) alloy has been formulated, and thus together with the consideration of press capacity and product quality, the extrusion process can be well controlled.     

面向产品设计的铝合金件翻边成形

以某车身铝合金内板件为研究对象,利用有限元模拟软件ABAQUS建立了翻边及回弹过程的有限元模型。通过优化上弯曲半径R1、下弯曲半径R2、翻边角度α等3个产品特征参数和润滑条件μ、模具间隙T等两个工艺参数,来减小回弹值和降低弯裂风险。结合正交试验和灰色关联的方法将多目标问题转化为单目标问题,得到较优的设计参数指导产品设计,并进行试验验证。结果表明,影响综合目标的主次顺序为:模具间隙翻边角度上弯曲半径下弯曲半径摩擦系数,得到优化后的组合参数为R1=5 mm,R2=9 mm,a=75°,μ=0.1,T=t,采用优化后的参数设计零件,得到的实际零件的回弹在公差范围内且无弯裂缺陷。     

Reverse effect of tensile force on sidewall curl for materials with tensile/compressive strength difference

Sidewall curl occurring by the removal of tool surfaces after forming is one adverse phenomenon that should be effectively reduced in sheet metal forming operations. Among several process parameters controlling sidewall curl, a constraint tensile force is widely used along with attainable formability by introducing blank holder and drawbead. The classic but common knowledge is that sidewall curl is suppressed for conventional sheet metals as the constraint tensile force increases. Interestingly, however, for magnesium alloy sheets that have unusual asymmetry in tension and compression it has been recently reported that springback increases as the tensile force increases within a specific range of tension. The major deformation in the sidewall usually consists of bending and unbending under tensile force. Therefore, this unique stress-strain response of sheet materials with strength-differential, including magnesium alloys, should be considered for an accurate estimation of sidewall curl. In the present study, a semi-analytical bending/unbending theory incorporating characteristic constitutive behavior of magnesium alloys was developed to evaluate the moment-curvature relationship for various levels of constraint tensile forces. The present analysis proved that the reverse effect of constraint tensile force on sidewall curl was caused by the lower resistance to plastic yielding in compression with proper combination of applied tensile force.     

Evaluation of stamping lubricants in forming advanced high strength steels (AHSS) using deep drawing and ironing tests

In forming AHSS, the lubricant must reduce the friction between die and sheet as well as the effect of heat generated from deformation and friction, especially in forming at high stroking rates. In this study, the effectiveness of stamping lubricants was evaluated by using the deep drawing and ironing tests. Various stamping lubricants were tested in forming of DP590 GA round cup samples. In these tests, the performance of lubricants was ranked via evaluation criteria that include punch force and the geometry of tested specimens. Deep drawing tests were conducted at two different blank holder forces, BHF (30 and 70 ton) at a constant ram speed (70 mm/s). The ironing tests were conducted to evaluate the performance of lubricants at higher tool–workpiece interface pressure than that is present in deep drawing. Polymer-based thin film lubricants with pressure additives (e.g. Lubricants A and B) were more effective than other lubricants as shown by the force (e.g. maximum punch force and applicable BHF without cup fracture) and geometry indicators (e.g. draw-in length, flange perimeter and sidewall thinning).The pressure and temperature distributions at the die–sheet interface were predicted by FE simulation of deep drawing and ironing tests. As expected, the value of interface pressure and temperature were maximum at the die corner radius.     

曲线回转体构件的成形工艺

对曲线回转体构件的成形过程进行力学解析,得到一种适用于大型锥形件缩口成形力的计算公式,并根据临界失稳压力优化结构参数,得到了缩口凹模最佳的母线半径和反弯曲半径;然后,利用得到的最优半径进行正交试验,对挤压过程中的挤压温度、挤压速度和摩擦系数进行优化,得到最佳工艺参数;最后,为验证理论数据的准确性,进行物理试验验证。结果表明,当挤压温度为460℃、挤压速度为5 mm·s^-1、摩擦系数为0.2时,零件的最低成形载荷为4013 kN,与模拟仿真结果和理论结果的误差均小于10%,说明了该成形方案的可行性。研究结果可以为今后此类构件的成形提供理论支持。     

A new approach for evaluating sheet metal forming based on sheet drawing test. Application to TRIP 700 steel

Sheet formability has usually been evaluated by experimental tests that act under different conditions to those the material is subjected to during industrial processing. The different variables acting on the process are not split up sufficiently to be separately analysed. In this work, a new approach to evaluate formability in pure shear deformation has been developed. For this purpose, a new apparatus has been devised to do drawing tests to thin sheets which permits the calculation of deformation work as a function of the drawing strain. Moreover, the coefficient of friction under high pressure values can be modelled. One application to TRIP 700 steel and the friction results have been considered up to an apparent pressure of 1900 MPa. Deformation work has been analysed and inhomogeneity deformation has been evaluated in terms of redundant work as a function of the geometry of the die. The obtained results agree with the theory of plasticity and demonstrate the utility of the methodology presented herein.     

薄壁管数控弯曲截面畸变的实验研究

截面畸变是薄壁管小弯曲半径数控弯曲成形容易出现的成形缺陷之一。文章采用实验法,研究了芯头个数、芯棒伸出量、弯曲角度、压块润滑状态、相对弯曲半径、材料等因素对截面畸变的影响;并提出了减小截面畸变的有效措施。结果表明,增加芯头个数与芯棒伸长量都能减小弯管的截面畸变,但两者都导致弯管壁厚减薄量增大;随着弯曲角度的增加,截面畸变越严重,相对弯曲半径越小,无芯棒与芯头支撑段弯管的截面畸变愈严重;在压块无润滑情况下,弯管的截面畸变和壁厚减薄量都小,并且在同等弯曲条件下,1Cr18Ni9Ti弯管的截面畸变小于LF2M弯管。     

卡爪式水下连接器承载能力分析

针对卡爪式水下连接器工作环境十分恶劣、外界干扰因素较多、会受到拉、压、弯、扭等外力的作用的问题,建立了连接器的模型,对各种受力状态进行了分析,提出了连接器在各种状态下的最大承载能力的计算方法。连接器对拉力的承载能力通过确定卡爪的危险截面及伸长量进行分析;连接器对压力的承载能力取决于两法兰之间的预留距离,通过计算卡爪的最大压缩量进行分析;连接器对弯矩的承载能力以距法兰中线最远的卡爪受力为准,根据倾覆力矩对连接器进行弯矩分析;连接器对扭矩的承载能力是由连接器内部卡爪与法兰之间的摩擦力决定的,在不同工况下,根据卡爪对法兰的正压力的变化,可以得到不同的结果。通过对卡爪式连接器的受力状态分析得到的连接器承载能力,对于国内类似水下机械式连接器的发展有一个很好的借鉴作用。     

滑动摩擦接触对母线弯曲成形质量的影响

目的 研究滑动摩擦接触对1060纯铝母线弯曲成形质量的影响,得到表面质量更好的工件,降低废品率。方法 采用自行设计的V形三点式自由弯曲成形的摩擦力测试装置,通过更换不同表面粗糙度的凹模圆角、不同润滑介质以改变接触状况,进行一系列摩擦试验。通过钨灯丝扫描显微镜获得板料弯曲件表面微观形貌图,通过MATLAB软件对所采集的数据进行曲线处理。结果 得到不同粗糙度的凹模圆角以及不同润滑介质条件下的弯曲力-行程曲线。经测定,凹模圆角表面光滑时,无润滑状态下,最大摩擦力约为440 N;采用聚乙烯薄膜作为润滑介质,最大摩擦力约为100 N;采用聚四氟乙烯薄膜作为润滑介质时,最大摩擦力约为20 N。凹模圆角表面粗糙时,无润滑状态下,最大摩擦力约为235 N;采用聚四氟乙烯薄膜作为润滑介质时,最大摩擦力约为28 N。结论 添加润滑介质可以有效降低板料与凹模圆角之间摩擦力大小,进而提高弯曲件表面成形质量。滑动摩擦条件下,无论光滑还是粗糙的凹模圆角,采取润滑措施均能有效提高弯曲成形工件的表面质量,且聚四氟乙烯薄膜作为润滑介质时,得到的板料表面质量最好。     

三通管内高压成形有限元模拟工艺分析

利用有限元软件模拟了三通管内高压成形的过程，分析了成形力、凹模圆角半径、摩擦情况及材料各向异性系数等关键工艺参数对三通管内高压成形质量的影响，并得出了分析规律，从而为实际生产中的三通管内高压成形工艺设计提供了参考数据和相关指导。     

基于有限元模拟的数控弯管过程轴力和弯矩的分析计算

获取管材数控弯曲过程中的轴力和弯矩,有助于对成形机理的了解和后续的回弹分析,以及为选择设备和设计模具提供重要依据。提出了基于三维有限元模拟的数控弯管过程中轴力和弯矩的求解方法,详细阐述了其实现过程。采用该方法,分析了轴力和弯矩随弯曲角的变化特征以及工艺和材料参数对轴力和弯矩的影响规律:随着弯曲过程的进行,塑性变形区的轴力变化不大,弯矩呈指数关系变化,而弯曲变形区刚性端的轴力几乎线性递增,弯矩类似于阻尼正弦曲线变化;弯曲速度和材料强度系数的增大以及弯曲半径和硬化指数的减小会引起轴力和弯矩的增加。文中提出的方法也可推广应用于板材、其他型材和管材的弯曲。     

A Method for evaluating limiting drawing ratios

Sufficient data have now been generated to assess the influence of material, process, and tooling variables on the limiting drawing ratio, when deep drawing cylindrical cups from circular blanks. The influence of these parameters is less well understood in the deep drawing of nonaxisymmetric cups, and the data that exist have generally been collected from drawing tests. A theoretical approach is presented for predicting the limiting drawing ratio when deep drawing prismatic cups. For a given blank geometry, the drawing load is calculated to plastically deform the flange, overcome friction between the flange and the blank holder, and to bend the material over the die radius. Deformation in the cup wall is ignored. The onset of yielding in the flange is determined using a finite-element code. The calculated drawing load is compared to a theoretical maximum, and when the two values coincide, this yields the limiting blank size under the assumed processing conditions, i.e., blank holder force, die radius, blank shape, and coefficient of friction. The theoretical predictions were compared with experimental results when deep drawing square cups from optimum blank shapes, and the correspondence was found to be acceptable.     

Modeling of chip–tool interface friction to predict cutting forces in machining of Al/SiCp composites

In Al/SiCp metal matrix composites, in addition to machine, tool and process-related parameters, a change in composition (size and volume fraction of reinforcement) has a influence on machining force components. In the analytical models in the literature, the effect of abrasive reinforcement particles, which affects the coefficient of friction and consequently the friction angle, has not been considered while predicting cutting forces in machining of MMCs. In this paper, chip–tool interface friction in machining of Al/SiCp composites has been considered to involve two-body abrasion and three-body rolling caused due to presence of reinforcements in composites. The model evaluates resulting coefficient of friction to predict the cutting forces during machining of Al/SiCp composites using theory of oblique cutting. Further, the model considers various frictional forces on the wiper geometry on the cutting edge that has been found to improve the integrity of machined surface on composites. The predicted cutting force values were found to agree well with the corresponding experimental values for finer reinforcements composites with the assumption that 40% of the reinforcement particles contribute to the abrasion at chip–tool interface. However, for the coarser reinforcement composites, assumption that the 60% of the particles contribute to the abrasion yields better results.     

内燃机润滑油喷嘴的设计与加工技术研究

介绍了内冷油道喷嘴的结构形式,并根据小直径管的缩口、压弯的基本理论,结合实际生产经验,对喷嘴加工方法所需的缩口模、压弯模的设计进行了阐述,着重介绍了缩口模和压弯模的组成特点,明确了成形模不同变径夹角、挤压力、变形量、压缩行程工艺参数的功用和具体工艺参数的选择。     

矩形管多点压弯成形截面畸变的数值分析

基于有限元分析软件ABAQUS,建立了矩形管多点压弯成形三维有限元模型,对比分析了矩形管整体压弯和多点压弯的截面畸变,研究了矩形管多点压弯成形时摩擦系数、管壁厚度、弯曲半径对截面畸变的影响。结果表明:矩形管多点压弯的截面畸变量略大于矩形管整体压弯的截面畸变量,且最大畸变率小于10%;摩擦系数对截面畸变影响较小;管壁越厚,截面畸变越小;弯曲半径越大,截面畸变越小。成形实验验证了矩形管多点压弯成形的可行性。     

Analysis of surface topography changes in steel sheet strips during bending under tension friction test

In order to investigate the frictional behaviour and the change in surface roughness of different sheet topographies, a bending under tension friction test, BUT, was used. This test exposes the material to bulk-plastic deformation under conditions similar to those present in the drawing radius of a real tool. Each steel sheet material has been tested under different lubrication conditions. To measure the sheet surface topography a 3D stylus technique was used.For each steel strip the original surface, the area in contact with the tool and the resulting surface topography were measured. When comparing “standard” 3D surface roughness data for original and final surfaces, no correlation with friction data was obtained. However, with a special evaluation technique good correlation with oil retention volume and frictional behaviour was found for the surface in contact with the tool. By using measurements from the contact area, filtering the measured surface in two steps, firstly with a 5th degree polynom to get rid of the circular form and secondly with a ball filter to get rid of the waviness located in the topmost layer in the surface and then plotting the bearing area curve for the filtered surface on a probability paper, the real area of contact for each steel sheet surface can be determined, as well as the number of oil pockets and their mean area. The oil pockets were estimated by using a software in which areas of peaks were estimated, on a surface inverted at the level of the real area of contact.By plotting the mean area of the oil pockets versus the coefficient of friction for a sheet material with an excess amount of lubricant, a relationship is determined.