Evaluation of effect of flow stress characteristics of tubular material on forming limit in tube hydroforming process

The material properties for the analytical and numerical simulation in sheet metal processes, especially in tube hydroforming process, are generally obtained from the uniaxial tensile test of raw sheet material. However, the validation of the formability and reliability of the numerical simulation for the tube hydroforming process arises from the fact that the material characteristics of tubes are different from those of the raw sheet materials. In order to determine the most suitable material property of the tubular material for the evaluation of forming limit on the THF process, the uniaxial tensile test for the specimens of the raw sheet metal and the roll-formed tube and the free bulge test for the roll-formed tubular material are carried out in this paper. The forming limit curves are also derived using plastic instability based on three kinds of necking criteria, which are Hill’s local necking criterion for sheet and Swift’s diffuse necking criteria for sheet and tube, to describe and explain the forming limits for the roll-formed tubular material in the THF process. In order to acquire the informative data on the forming limit curves in the THF process, the loading condition of the free bulge test is controlled. The proper band from nearly necking initiation to nearly bursting initiation has been defined for the roll-formed tubular material in the THF process. It can be concluded that the flow stress of the tubular material should be determined from the actual free bulge test to find the practically valuable forming limit curve for the THF process.     

Identification of Post-necking Tensile Stress–Strain Behavior of Steel Sheet: An Experimental Investigation Using Digital Image Correlation Technique

The stress–strain behavior of sheet metal is commonly evaluated by tensile test. However, the true stress–strain curve is restricted up to uniform elongation of the material. Usually, after the uniform elongation of the material the true stress–strain is obtained by extrapolation. The present work demonstrates a procedure to find out the true tensile stress–strain curve of the steel sheet after necking using digital image correlation (DIC) technique. Hill’s normal anisotropic yield criteria and local strains measured by DIC technique are used to correct the local stress and strain states at the diffuse necked area. The proposed procedure is shown to successfully determine the true tensile stress–strain curve of ferritic and dual-phase steel sheets after necking/uniform elongation.     

流动应力-应变关系对5754O铝合金板成形极限的影响(英文)

为了合理描述单向拉伸试验曲线,给出了一种修正的Swift型流动应力—应变关系。基于两种流动应力—应变关系,采用Yld2000-2d屈服准则计算5754O铝合金板的成形极限应变图(FLD-strain)。通过对比理论和实验结果,发现基于修正的Swift型的应力—应变关系所计算的FLD-strain能够合理地描述实验结果。虽然常用的Voce型应力—应变关系能够精确地描述均匀变形阶段的变形行为,但基于该应力—应变关系计算的FLD-strain明显低于实验结果。结果表明,板料的强化率越高则相应的成形极限也越高。为了描述板料在非均匀变形阶段的变形行为和成形极限,建议了一种用于确定合理的流动应力—应变关系的方法。     

�������ְ嵥������ʧ�ȵ��о�

 针对冷轧薄钢板St14在单向拉伸试验中出现的试样“双缩颈”现象,结合观察试样缩颈断裂处的形态,引用薄板单向拉伸分散性失稳和集中性失稳理论对其做出合理解释。通过拉伸过程应变网格分析,验证了薄板拉伸分散性失稳和集中性失稳的存在。明确薄板拉伸失稳的特性,更加有利于正确判定和合理利用深冲压用冷轧薄钢板的塑性指标。     

材料常用流动应力模型研究

材料流动应力模型是金属成形数值模拟的重要参数之一。对于中厚板体积成形而言,经常规板料拉伸试验所得的流动应力范围达不到数值模拟的需要,对应大应变的流动应力一般借助外推模型进行估测。选用不同的外推模型使得中厚板体积成形数值计算所得的成形力存在较大的偏差,这种偏差会影响压力机的选择和模具强度的校核。基于中厚板材料的拉伸试验曲线结果,采用物理分析和数学推导相结合的方法研究了8种外推模型的拟合准确度、物理意义、硬化程度等因素。研究结果对中厚板体积成形数值模拟中材料流动应力模型的选择具有一定的理论指导。     

Numerical Investigations on the Influence of Superimposed Double-Sided Pressure on the Formability of Biaxially Stretched AA6111-T4 Sheet Metal

Lightweight materials have been widely used in aerospace, automobile industries to meet the requirement of structural weight reduction. Due to their limited plasticity at room temperature, however, lightweight materials always exhibit distinctly poor forming capability in comparison with conventional deep drawing steels. Based on the phenomenon that the superimposed hydrostatic pressure can improve the plasticity of metal, many kinds of double-sided pressure forming processes have been proposed. In the present study, the Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman (GTN) damage model combined with finite element method is used to investigate the influence of double-sided pressure on the deformation behavior of biaxially stretched AA6111-T4 sheet metal, including nucleation and growth of microvoids, evaluation of stress triaxiality, and so forth. The Marciniak-Kuczynski (M-K) localized necking model is used to predict the right-hand side of the forming limit diagram (FLD) of sheet metal under superimposed double-sided pressure. It is found that the superimposed double-sided pressure has no obvious effect on the nucleation of microvoids. However, the superimposed double-sided pressure can suppress the growth and coalescence of microvoids. The forming limit curve (FLC) of the biaxially stretched AA6111-T4 sheet metal under the superimposed double-sided pressure is improved and the fracture locus shifts to the left. Furthermore, the formability increase value is sensitive to the strain path.     

Identification of the plastic deformation characteristics of AL5052-O sheet based on the non-associated flow rule

This study aims to determine the plastic deformation characteristics of aluminum 5052-O based on non-associated flow rule. To achieve this goal, a new strain hardening model named as Kim-Tuan hardening model is proposed to perfectly describe the stress-strain relation of the studied material in terms of the uniaxial tensile test and to predict the material’s post-necking behavior. Additionally, the plastic behaviors of AL5052-O sheet are described by two approaches: the associated flow rule with YLD2000-2d yield function and the non-associated flow rule with Hill's quadratic function (NAFR-Hill48). The parameters of these functions were derived from the material properties that were obtained from uniaxial tensile tests and bulge test. The flow curve based on Kim-Tuan model and plastic behaviors obtained from two above-mentioned approaches were imported into a finite element analysis code to simulate the hydraulic bulge test for this material to confirm the precision of material characteristics achieved before. The simulation results based on the NAFR-Hill48 match well with the experiment results of bulge test while the YLD2000-2d provides highly accurate predictions for anisotropy of this material.     

An overview of stabilizing deformation mechanisms in incremental sheet forming

In incremental sheet forming (ISF) strains can be obtained well above the forming limit curve (FLC) that is applicable to common sheet forming operations like deep drawing and stretching. This paper presents an overview of mechanisms that have been suggested to explain the enhanced formability. The difference between fracture limit and necking limit in sheet metal forming is discussed. The necking limit represents a localized geometrical instability. Localized deformation is an essential characteristic of ISF and proposed mechanisms should stabilize the localization before it leads to fracture. In literature six mechanisms are mentioned in relation to ISF: contact stress; bending-under-tension; shear; cyclic straining; geometrical inability to grow and hydrostatic stress. The first three are able to localize deformation and all but the last, are found to be able to postpone unstable growth of a neck. Hydrostatic pressure may influence the final failure, but cannot explain stability above the FLC.     

高速率成形中材料成形性的影响因素

成形性是金属成形中材料最重要的性能之一.研究表明,高速下成形性有较大提高.本文综述了国外关于成形性的影响因素的研究现状,总结了高速率下成形性得到提高的主要原因:惯性是影响高速率成形性的主要因素,它有助于分散变形,抑制变形集中化;并对高速率下缩颈模式有很大影响,惯性力导致产生多处缩颈,并抑制缩颈集中化;高速的模具冲击作用同样是一个重要的影响因素,其产生惯性减薄挤压作用,从而使工件受到压缩应力而减少损伤参数,达到稳定变形的效果;应变速率的增加可能引起材料本构关系的改变,从而增加材料成形性.     

Determination of the flow stress of five AHSS sheet materials (DP 600, DP 780, DP 780-CR,DP 780-HY and TRIP 780) using the uniaxial tensile and the biaxial Viscous Pressure Bulge (VPB) tests

Room temperature uniaxial tensile and biaxial Viscous Pressure Bulge (VPB) tests were conducted for five Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) sheet materials, and the resulting flow stress curves were compared. Strain ratios (R-values) were also determined in the tensile test and used to correct the biaxial flow stress curves for anisotropy. The pressure vs. dome height raw data in the VPB test was extrapolated to the burst pressure to obtain the flow stress curve until fracture. Results of this work show that the flow stress data can be obtained to higher strain values under biaxial state of stress. Moreover, it was observed that some materials behave differently if subjected to different state of stress. These two conclusions, and the fact that the state of stress in actual stamping processes is almost always biaxial, suggest that the bulge test is a more suitable test for obtaining the flow stress of AHSS sheet materials for use as an input to Finite Element (FE) simulation models.     

Sheet Metal Forming with Hydraulic Counter Pressure in Japan

The sheet metal forming method with hydraulic counter pressure, which makes use of hydraulic counter pressure generated through the penetration of the punch into the die cavity, possesses good features compared with conventional drawing methods. The advantages are higher forming limit, higher accuracy of drawn parts, achievement of complicated shape and adoption of simplified drawing die. In Japan, about 50 hydraulic counter pressure press machines have already been manufactured and now in the actual production line for reflectors of lighting equipments, aircraft parts and automobile parts, and so on. This report introduces the present situation of sheet metal forming with hydraulic counter pressure and some examples of the formed parts in Japan.     

Forming limit of electrodeposited nickel coating in the left region

A uniform nickel (Ni) coating was bilaterally electrodeposited on the low-carbon steel substrate for the application of advanced battery shells. Its forming limit was investigated by Hill localized necking theory coupled with finite element simulation and scanning electron microscopy. The effective stress and effective strain in the Ni coating and steel substrate are deduced using Hill’s anisotropic yield function. The localized necking condition is derived by sandwich sheet analysis, and the forming limit strains are obtained by solving the nonlinear equation of the localized necking condition. Extensive calculations are carried out using the proposed model. This study exhibits the nickel coating thickness and the normal anisotropic coefficients of the coating and substrate have little influence on the forming limit curve (FLC) in the left region of the coated sheet, but the strain hardening exponents of the coating and substrate have much effect on it. The calculated result matches well with the measured data in uniaxial tension. This investigation is useful for the preparation of the electrodeposited Ni coating and helpful for the forming operation of the battery shells.     

基于固体颗粒介质的板材软模成形工艺

选用非金属颗粒(NMG)作为研究对象,通过体积压缩试验和NMG在高应力水平下的物理性能试验,得到NMG体积压缩曲线和扩展的Drucker-Prager线性模型参数;通过摩擦强度试验,得到NMG的Mohr-Coulomb模型参数,并与扩展的Drucker-Prager线性模型参数比对基本吻合;测定了NMG与板材在不同正压力下的摩擦因数曲线。以材料性能试验为基础,对基于固体颗粒介质的板材软模成形工艺进行数值分析;设计制造固体颗粒介质板材成形试验模具,成功制出抛物线形零件。结果表明：固体颗粒介质与板材表面作用所表现出的显著摩擦性能,可以极大限度地发挥板料的成形性能;其工艺控制简便,模具结构简单;成形工件具有表面质量好、贴模性好、精度高等优点,为板材的加工和制备提供了新的方法和手段。     

Assessment of the Cold Formability of Ferritic Steels Using Parameters Determined in Uniaxial Tensile Testing

Possibilities and limits of the uniaxial tensile testing in the assessment of cold formability of ferritic low alloy steels are evaluated in the paper. Cold formability covering both sheet and massive forming, including entire formability maps, strain hardening etc., can be estimated from six material parameters determined in a uniaxial tensile test. A master stress strain curve to explain multiple n behavior is proposed. Effects of alloying, especially chromium, and other metallurgical parameters on cold formability are discussed.     

一种建立板料成形极限应力图的新方法

基于塑性理论建立了比例加载条件下双向拉伸应力应变关系,结合Swift分散性失稳准则,提出了一种建立板料成形极限应力图的方法。分别应用Hill 48和Hosford屈服准则以及单向拉伸性能参数,建立了铝合金板(r<1)和薄钢板(r>1)两种材料的成形极限应力图(FLSD),分析表明,不同的屈服准则的选取对于成形极限应力曲线有不同的影响,对于不同类型的材料屈服准则的影响程度也不同。与由通常的成形极限图(FLD)转换所得到的成形极限应力图(FLSD)进行了对比分析,结果表明,所提出的方法计算过程更为简便,并能较为准确地建立成形极限应力图,可以作为复杂加载路径下的成形极限破裂判据。     

Investigation on deformation behavior of sheet metals in viscous pressure bulging based on ESPI

In order to analyze the effect of viscous medium on the deformation behavior of sheet metals in viscous pressure bulging (VPB), the entire deformation process including instability and fracture was investigated real-timely by the aid of electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI). Images of speckle patterns were captured continuously to obtain fringe patterns representing the full field strain rate. Values of strain rates were calculated based on the fringe patterns. The evolution of the weak region from the initial defect to the groove until crack was also observed through the fringe patterns. The onset of diffuse and localized necking were determined qualitatively and quantitatively. Experimental results show that the deformation of sheet metals in VPB passed through five states, namely, uniform deformation, strain localization, diffuse necking, localized necking and fracture. A defect emerged in strain localization. The growth of the defect caused the diffuse necking and generated a groove. The groove expanded mainly in length direction until the localized necking occurred. Finally the specimen fractured as a result of groove deepening. The tangential adhesive stress provided by viscous medium in VPB restricted the locally larger strain of the specimen. The diffuse necking was postponed greatly. Theoretical prediction of the limit strains of sheet metals in VPB would be made based on the experimental results in further work.     

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸性能研究

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸,是实现板料双向拉伸变路径条件下,达到大变形以至破裂的可行试验方法,对于复杂加载路径板料屈服行为及成形极限研究,有重要的试验意义。通过标准单向拉伸试验,对比研究了板材减薄前后单向拉伸性能的变化。对于中心区方形减薄的十字形试件,进行了单臂试件和十字形试件的单向拉伸试验,验证了中心区减薄后应力计算的正确性。     

Analysis of Dynamic Loads on the Dies in High Speed Sheet Metal Forming Processes

During high-speed sheet metal forming processes, the speed at which the work piece contacts the die tooling is on the order of hundreds of meters per second. When the impact is concentrated over a small contact area, the resulting contact stress can compromise the structural integrity of the die tooling. Therefore, it is not only important to model the behavior of the workpiece during the high-speed sheet metal forming process, but also important to predict accurately the associated workpiece/tooling interface loads so that engineers can more confidently propose robust die tooling designs. The foundation to accurate predictions of contact stress on die tooling is a reliable contact model within the context of a finite element simulation. In literature, however, there exists no comprehensive guideline for establishing a contact model for high-speed sheet metal forming processes using the finite element method. In this paper, mathematically justified contact model recommendations are offered for the electrohydraulic forming (EHF) process.     

Numerical simulation of aluminum alloy ladder parts with viscous pressure forming

1　INTRODUCTIONTheeffectofstressstatesonaxisymmetricsheetformabilityhasbeenstudiedundertheconditionofsolidmetalpunchforming [14 ] ,andtheeffectofblankholderpressure (BHP) ,frictioncoefficientandpunchconfigurationonthestressstateshasbeenob tained .Becauseofthedisadvantagesofsolid punchforming ,newformingtechnologyisneededtoim provethestressstatesofthesheetinformingprocessandtomeettherequirementofforminglow plastici ty ,complexshapeparts .Viscouspressureforming(VPF)isarecentlydevelopedfle…     

汽车波形套复合缩径—胀形新工艺成形研究

本文提出汽车波形套成形的复合缩径—胀形工艺 ,设计了成形模具 ;给出了胀形用弹性介质体积及几何形状的确定原则 ;建立了波形套复合缩径—胀形力学模型 ,推导出各变形区的应力平衡方程 ,基于实验研究求解了变形区的应变场及应力场