Attentional capture in singleton-detection and feature-search modes.

Six experiments were conducted to determine the circumstances under which an irrelevant singleton captures attention. Subjects searched for a target while ignoring a salient distractor that appeared at different stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) prior to each search display. Spatial congruency and interference effects were measured. The strategies available to find the target were controlled (only singleton-detection mode, only feature-search mode, or both search strategies available). An irrelevant abrupt onset captured attention in search for a color target, across SOAs, whatever strategies were available. In contrast, in search for a shape target, an irrelevant color singleton captured attention in the singleton-detection condition but delayed response at its location in the feature-search condition, across SOAs. When both strategies were available, capture was short lived (50- to 100-msec SOAs). The theoretical implications of these findings in relation to current views on attentional capture are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Redundancy gains and costs in cognitive processing: Effects of short stimulus onset asynchronies.

In 7 experiments, the influence of varying stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) on the processing of redundant information about words and pseudowords was investigated. All stimuli were visually presented once or twice with 2 copies of the same item flashed either simultaneously or with short SOAs between presentations. The experiments revealed a redundancy gain for words that was absent for pseudowords. Furthermore, the redundancy gain disappeared at an SOA of 50 ms, and them was a gradual performance decline at longer SOAs. However, probing SOAs of 150 and 300 ms revealed that, compared with presentation of 1 target stimulus alone, words were processed significantly faster when target and redundant copy appeared with a 150-ms lag. The results are tentatively explained in a neurocognitive framework (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

List-context effects in evaluative priming.

Evaluative priming effects are often found in the evaluative decision task, in which persons judge the affective connotation (positive vs. negative) of a target word. The present experiments examined list-context effects to test whether evaluative and semantic priming follow the same laws. In Experiment 1, evaluative priming was found at prime-target stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 0 ms and 100 ms, but not at SOAs of -100, 200, 600, and 1,200 ms. Experiment 2 manipulated SOA (0, 200, and 1,200 ms) and the proportion (25%, 50%, and 75%) of the prime-target pairs that were evaluatively related. Contrary to the typical finding that increases in the proportion of related prime-target pairs lead to increased priming at long but not short SOAs, an effect of consistency proportion was found at SOAs of 0 ms (for reaction times) and 200 ms (in the accuracy data), but not at the 1,200-ms SOA. The pattern of results is discussed in relation to possible explanatory mechanisms of evaluative priming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The absence of a gender congruency effect in romance languages: A matter of stimulus onset asynchrony?

Using the picture-word interference paradigm, H. Schriefers and E. Teruel (2000) found that in German the grammatical gender of the distractor word affects the production of phrases composed of article+picture name: Latencies were longer for picture-word pairs of different genders. However, the effect was found only at positive stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs; i.e., when pictures were presented 75 or 150 ms earlier than word distractors). This gender congruency effect is not obtained in Romance languages. The present article examines whether in these languages, as in German, the effect appears at positive SOAs. No effect was observed in Italian and Spanish at positive SOAs. An account is proposed to explain why the gender congruency effect is obtained in Germanic (Dutch and German) but not in Romance languages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A further report on a case of Floating-Harbor Syndrome in a mother and daughter

The effects of frequency differences between the lead and lag stimuli on auditory apparent motion (AAM--the perception of continuous changes in the location of a sound image over time) were examined in two experiments. In experiment 1, three standard frequencies (500, 1000, and 5000 Hz) and three SOAs (40, 60, and 100 ms) were tested. Both standard frequency and stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) were constant throughout a session. Eleven comparison frequencies were tested within each session, with the range dependent on the standard frequency. At standard frequencies of 500 and 1000 Hz, AAM was heard when the frequencies of the lead and lag stimuli were within 100 Hz of each other. At 5000 Hz, the range of frequencies producing AAM increased with SOA. In experiment 2, two standards (500 and 5000 Hz) were tested with a wider range of SOAs (10-210 ms) varied within a session, and a narrower range of comparison frequencies. Here, comparison frequency was constant throughout a session. At 500 Hz, the SOAs producing AAM did not depend on comparison frequency. At 5000 Hz, the SOAs producing AAM increased with comparison frequency, consistent with Korte's third law of visual apparent motion.     

Temporal integration and vibrotactile backward masking.

In 2 experiments, 12 Ss were presented with vibrotactile target patterns to their left index fingertips. The target patterns varied in the number of line segments that they contained and were presented in the presence or absence of a backward-masking stimulus. The stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between the target and masker was varied. In an identification task, Ss' errors indicated that at brief SOAs the masker increased the perceived number of line segments in the targets. This effect diminished with increasing SOA, and at the longest SOAs, Ss confused targets with patterns containing the same number of line segments but varying in how the line segments were related. In an estimation task, the masker increased the number of line segments estimated to be contained in the target pattern. The effect of the masker at brief SOAs is discussed in terms of an integration theory of vibrotactile backward masking. At longer SOAs, the results suggest that the masker may interfere with the extraction of relational information in the target pattern. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing phonological and semantic ambiguity: Evidence from semantic priming at different SOAs.

Disambiguation of heterophonic and homophonic homographs was investigated in Hebrew using semantic priming. Ambiguous primes were followed by unambiguous targets at 100 msec, 250 msec, and 750 msec stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA). Lexical decision for targets related to the dominant phonological alternatives of heterophonic homographs was facilitated at all SOAs. Targets related to subordinate alternatives were facilitated only at SOAs of 250 msec or longer. When the primes were homophonic homographs, semantic relationship facilitated lexical decision to targets at all SOAs regardless of the dominance of the meaning to which the targets were related. These data can be accounted for by assuming multiple lexical entries for heterophonic homographs, single lexical entries for homophonic homographs, and phonological mediation of accessing meanings. Language-specific factors probably account for the long-lasting activation of subordinate meanings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A time course analysis of Stroop interference and facilitation: Comparing normal individuals and individuals with schizophrenia.

Using randomized stimulus onset asynchrony (SOAs), the authors traced the time course of Stroop interference and facilitation in normal participants and participants with schizophrenia. Unlike earlier findings using blocked SOAs, singular peaks in interference, facilitation, or both occurred at particular SOAs. The peaks of normal participants and participants with schizophrenia differed. Findings are congruent with a model of Stroop performance that posits individual differences in processing speeds of target and nontarget stimulus dimensions, coupled with critical points in response selection. Participants with schizophrenia also showed more overall interference than normal control participants. A second experiment that added a temporal gap between the distractor word and target color obliterated Stroop effects only for individuals with schizophrenia. These findings provide a new empirical basis for models of Stroop effects. They are also consistent with hypotheses about the importance of the prefrontal cortex for working memory and prefrontal dysfunction in schizophrenia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Methodological control of semantic priming in Alzheimer's disease.

We conducted a lexical-decision, semantic priming experiment that included 250- and 1000-ms stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) with 32 probable Alzheimer's disease (AD) and 40 older normal persons. Attention-based, controlled processes are assumed to occur only at the longer of the 2 SOAs. The AD group showed greater than normal priming in the long-SOA but not the short-SOA condition. We conclude that greater than normal AD priming is a function of controlled processing rather than semantic network degradation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dual-task processing when task 1 is hard and task 2 is easy: Reversed central processing order?

Five psychological refractory period (PRP) experiments were conducted with an especially time-consuming first task (Experiments 1, 3, and 5: mental rotation; Experiments 2 and 4: memory scanning) and with equal emphasis on the first task and on the second (left–right tone judgment). The standard design with varying stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) was extended by a condition with blocked SOAs in Experiments 3 and 4. Based on the optimization account (Miller, Ulrich, & Rolke, 2009) it was expected that participants would—at short, but not long SOAs—tend to process the relatively fast central stage of Task 2 before the time-consuming central stage of Task 1 and consequently emit the response to Task 2 before the response to Task 1. Such an optimization tendency was found, more so for the mental rotation task and for the blocked SOA condition. The results indicate that preparation, Task 1 characteristics, and TRT (total reaction time) optimization are—among others—factors influencing central processing order in PRP tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and repetition priming from masked words: Evidence for a center-surround attentional mechanism in perceptual recognition.

Two lexical decision experiments compared semantic and repetition priming by masked words. Experiment 1 established prime–mask stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) with presence–absence detection judgments. Primes presented at detection-threshold SOAs produced equal facilitation for repeated and semantically related targets: 26 ms and 24 ms. Experiment 2 established SOAs with semantic judgments. Primes presented at 70% of the semantic-threshold SOA to mimic the exposure conditions of Experiment 1 produced slightly greater facilitation for repeated targets but a tendency toward inhibition for semantically related targets: 38 ms and –6 ms. These results confirm the D. Dagenbach et al (see record 1990-00392-001) report that strategies induced by threshold-setting tasks can influence masked priming. In addition, Experiment 2 suggests a mechanism for retrieving weakly activated semantic codes into consciousness that relies on the center-surround principle to enhance activation of sought-for codes and to inhibit related codes stored nearby in the semantic network. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit knowledge versus psychoacoustic similarity in priming of chords.

A chord-priming paradigm was used to test predictions of a neural net model (MUSACT). The model makes a nonintuitive prediction: Following a prime chord, expectations for the target chord are based on psychoacoustic similarity at short stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) but on implicit knowledge of conventional relationships at longer SOAs. In a critical test, 2 targets were selected for each prime. One was more psychoacoustically similar to the prime, and the other was more closely related on the basis of convention. With an SOA of 50 ms, priming favored the psychoacoustically similar target; with SOAs of 500 ms and longer, the effect reversed, and priming favored conventional relatedness. The results underscore the limitations of models of harmony based on psychoacoustic factors alone. These studies demonstrate how neural net learning models that are appropriately constrained can be subject to strong empirical verification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The demonstration of short-term consolidation

In a dual-task paradigm, a visual display (T1) containing characters (letters or symbols) was presented first, followed by an auditory signal (T2) at various stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOAs). A speeded response to T2 was required. When the information in T1 had to be recalled later, response times to T2 (RT2) were elevated at short SOAs and decreased as SOA was increased. The effects on RT2 were larger when there were more items to be remembered. We interpreted the results as evidence that encoding information into short-term memory (STM) involves a distinct process, which we call short-term consolidation (STC). The results suggested that STC has limited capacity and that it requires central processing mechanisms. Additional evidence suggested that no memory for T1 was formed in STM when STC was not engaged.     

Examining the role of the fixation cue in inhibition of return.

To clarify the role of the fixation cue in inhibition of return (IOR), the present study compared four conditions: fixation cue immediately after the peripheral cue, in the middle of the stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA), immediately before the onset of the target, or no fixation cue. With a 200-ms SOA, less IOR was found when the fixation cue was either absent or occurred immediately after the peripheral cue. No differences between the four conditions were found with 400-ms and 800-ms SOAs. These findings suggest that there is a brief period of time in which attention cannot be withdrawn from the peripherally cued location. Once attention has been withdrawn from the peripherally cued location, IOR can be found at short SOAs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A central capacity sharing model of dual-task performance.

The authors present the central capacity sharing (CCS) model and derive equations describing its behaviors to explain results from dual-task situations. The predictions of the CCS model are contrasted with those of the central bottleneck model. The CCS model predicts all of the hallmark effects of the psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm: -1 slope of the PRP effect at short stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs), underadditivity of precentral Task 2 manipulations, additivity of central or postcentral Task 2 manipulations with SOA, and carry forward to Task 2 of Task 1 precentral or central manipulations at short SOAs. The CCS model also predicts that Task 1 response times increase with decreasing SOA. The model is a viable alternative to the central bottleneck model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial relevance determines facilitatory and inhibitory effects of auditory covert spatial orienting.

Eight experiments examined the conditions necessary for covert orienting and inhibition of return (IOR) to occur in audition. Spatially uninformative auditory cues facilitated responses to auditory targets at short stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) and inhibited them at longer SOAs when the decision to respond was based on the location of the target (Experiments 1, 3, and 4). The same cues did not influence performance when the decision to respond was based on nonspatial criteria (Experiments 2, 5, and 7) unless the cues predicted the location of the target (Experiment 6). In the absence of cues, the location of a previous target influenced performance when the decision to respond was based on spatial, but not nonspatial, criteria (Experiment 8). These findings demonstrate that covert orienting and IOR occur in audition only when spatial relevance is established, presumably inducing use of location-sensitive neurons in generating responses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Phonological activation in visual identification of Chinese two-character words.

Evidence for phonological activation in the recognition of 2-character Chinese words was discovered in 2 experiments. In a meaning-judgment task, Experiment 1 exposed two words with stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) of 0, 71, and 157 ms. At all 3 SOAs, times to make a "no" meaning judgment were longer for words that were homophones than for unrelated controls. In a lexical-decision task, Experiment 2 manipulated the phonological consistency of 1 of the 2 characters. Responses to words with a phonologically inconsistent character were slower, regardless of the left–right position of the character. These results add to previous results for 1-character words, suggesting that phonology is an obligatory constituent of word identification in Chinese. A proposed theoretical framework for 2-character word identification accounts for the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identification Facilitation for Emotionally Arousing Verbs During the Attentional Blink.

The present study aimed to examine affective modulation of the "attentional blink" effect during rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP). Pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant written verbs were used as a 2nd target (T2) in an 8.6-Hz RSVP paradigm. Pronounced effects of 1st target (T1)-T2 stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) were found, showing reduced report accuracy for 232- and 464-ms SOAs. Affectively arousing (pleasant and unpleasant) T2s were associated with enhanced accuracy compared with neutral T2s specifically during short (232 ms) SOAs. In contrast, pleasant and unpleasant T2s rated low in terms of emotional arousal did not show this enhancement. These results suggest that affectively arousing information is selected preferentially from a temporal stream, facilitating processes such as working memory consolidation and action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The time course of competition for attention: Attention is initially labile.

Competition for attention between 2 written words was investigated by presenting the words briefly in a single stream of distractors (Experiment 1) or in different streams (Experiment 2- 6), using rapid serial visual presentation at 53 ms/item. Stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) was varied from 0 to 213 ms. At all SOAs there was strong competition, but which word was more likely to be reported shifted markedly with SOA. At SOAs in the range of 13-53 ms the second word was more likely to be reported, but at 213 ms, the advantage switched to the first word, as in the attentional blink. A 2-stage competition model of attention is proposed in which attention to a detected target is labile in Stage 1. Stage 1 ends when one target is identified, initiating a serial Stage 2 process of consolidation of that target. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disinhibition of return: unnecessary and unlikely

Recently, from data obtained with a temporal order judgment (TOJ) task, Gibson and Egeth (1994) concluded that inhibition of return (IOR; a response time effect that reveals slower responding to targets at previously cued versus uncued locations) reflects impaired perceptual processing. By replotting their data, we demonstrate that the perception of temporal order is influenced only by the facilitatory effect of a cue at short stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) and is unaffected by IOR at long SOAs. The target paper proposed that, when extra stimuli are presented at task-relevant locations (i.e., in the TOJ task), IOR is prevented by a hypothetical process that is known as disinhibition of return (DOR). We argue that the assumptions that IOR affects perceptual processing and that DOR exists are unnecessary, as a more parsimonious response-based interpretation of IOR is consistent with their data. Further, we summarize recent results and present new data that demonstrate that DOR is unlikely.