家用/商用空调用R32替代R22的再分析

在R22替代工作进入实质性阶段、但国内外成熟替代物又尚不明朗之际,作者针对国内外R22替代物现状以及国际上对环保工质新的要求,曾于2009.10探索提出在家用/商用空调中使用R32替代R22的设想[1],这里进一步对为何关注R32、如何评价它的减排效果、机组最大充注量的限度如何、有否节能效益、能否为我国空调行业与氟化工行业的转轨形成"互利共赢"局面以及需要解决哪些关键技术等问题作了比较详细具体的再分析,并与现有或有望成为R22替代物R410A、R290、R161等进行了综合比较,认为R32是一种和谐兼顾减排、节能、安全、市场和替代物转轨等诸方面要求的、很有前景的替代R22的长期制冷剂。     

R32替代R22的可行性探讨

从理论热工性能分析、环保、安全以及性能测试试验对比等角度,讨论制冷剂 R32 替代 R22 的优势,认为R32替代R22是可行的.同时,分析R32替代R22时存在的高排气压力和高排气温度以及安全性问题.基于目前的制冷技术以及R32本身的热力特性,只要能够通过采取一系列技术手段和安全措施解决这些问题,R32可以作为R22良好的过渡或替代制冷剂.     

Refrigerant 134a: The first step into a new age of refrigerants

Many papers have been published on R134a within the last four years, beginning from the point when it became apparent that R134a would be the favourite for replacing the most important fully halogenated refrigerant worldwide, R12. This paper summerizes the requirements for a suitable replacement for R12, the criteria leading to the selection of R134a, the developmental efforts that have been made and the results of this process. In particular, chemical properties, material compatibility and thermodynamic properties of R134a are described. Because of the different chemistry in comparison with CFC refrigerants, special requirements for suitable compressor lubricants and system cleanliness are mentioned. Finally, some explanations of installing closed pruduct cycles for CFCs and their substitutes are given.     

R32和R410A循环特性对比研究

国内外加速淘汰 HCFCs 制冷剂的时间表已经确定,而理想的替代制冷剂仍不明确.本文以风冷式冷(热)水机组为对象,对目前业内应用较多的替代制冷剂 R410A 以及被国内学者关注的制冷剂 R32 的循环特性进行理论分析及实验研究,并指出应用 R32 制冷剂时存在的问题,以期为国内 R22 的替代决策提供有益的参考.     

Literature Survey on Thermophysical Properties of Refrigerants

A bibliographic compilation is given on thermophysical properties of the environmentally acceptable hydrofluorocarbon blends R404A, R407C, and R410A. These refrigerant blends are still under investigation and meant to replace the transitional hydrochlorofluorocarbon R22 and the azeotrope R502. In a second part reliable formulations to calculate thermophysical-property surfaces of some selected well investigated fluids used in refrigeration are recommended. The fluids water, air, carbon dioxide, ammonia, R134a, R123, and R152a are subjects of that part.     

Refrigerants used in the Portuguese food industry: Current status

Owing to environmental problems arising from the use of refrigerants, first the ozone depletion and later the global warming, various refrigerants have been banned and their phase-out deadlines established through some international protocols, the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols being two of the most famous of such agreements. This paper intends to make a characterization of the most currently used refrigerants in the Portuguese food industry, through a sample of 148 companies gathered in a nationwide survey. It also aims to analyse not only the environmental impacts of these refrigerants, but also the restrictions that these companies may incur according to the EU Regulation No. 517/2014, such as maintenance and service bans or cap and phase-down on the supply. Finally, according to other research and tests reports, some possible replacements for two of the most commonly used refrigerants (R404A and R22) which are being phased down, are summarized. According to the research, there are some satisfactory mid-term and long-term alternatives available for R22 and R404A that have much lower GWP, allowing systems to achieve higher efficiencies and in turn, lower environmental impacts during their service life.     

Electrical properties of CFC- and HCFC-substitutes

Electrical properties of refrigerants are of importance as soon as bushings are surrounded by a refrigerant. This is the case e. g. for hermetic sealed motor compressors as well as for some control devices such as liquid level control units or capacity controls for compressors. This paper presents a survey of existing data for HFC refrigerants and presents new measurements for those HFC blends that have been identified as long term replacements for CFCs and HCFCs. The data collection includes permittivity, electrical conductivity and breakdown voltage. Values are given for the HFC blends R404A, R407C, R410A and R507 as well as for R134a.     

三级自动复叠系统混合工质配比设计与验证

为了确定应用于三级自动复叠系统的混合工质,说明了混合工质组分确定的方法,并据此为一台设备选取了R134a/R23/R14/R50作为制冷剂。通过提出了一些理想状态假设之后,简化制冷剂在制冷系统中的循环过程。忽视非必须制冷剂R50对系统的影响,认为系统中只有R134a/R23/R14进行制冷循环。利用串联热平衡法计算了各组分的循环流量,以R14的循环量作为对比单位,与实验得出的最佳配比进行比较。通过分析误差原因,指出了在实际设备制造过程中根据计算结果确定混合工质配比的可行性。     

R22及其替代物的热物性计算及比较

本文根据R2 2、R12 5的状态方程对空调替代工质R410A热物性进行了计算 ,并对比了R410A与R2 2的热力学性质和理论制冷循环的各项指标。     

R290在小型空调器中替代R22的优势与问题及其解决措施

讨论R290在小型空调器中替代R22的优势,分析R290在小型空调器中替代R22时存在的安全问题,指出基于R290本身的热物理特性,通过采取一系列措施是可以克服R290小型空调器的安全问题;同时指出相对于其他碳氢化合物的光雾反应活性及其他产生源,R290在小型空调器中替代R22所需的量及其产生的光雾反应是很微小的。     

Analysis based on EU Regulation No 517/2014 of new HFC/HFO mixtures as alternatives of high GWP refrigerants in refrigeration and HVAC systems

The EU Regulation No 517/2014 is going to phase-out most of the refrigerants commonly used in refrigeration and air conditioning systems (R134a, R404A and R410A) because of their extended use and their high GWP values. There are very different options to replace them; however, no refrigerant has yet imposed. In this paper we review and analyze the different mixtures proposed by the AHRI as alternative refrigerants to those employed currently. These mixtures are composed by HFC refrigerants: R32, R125, R152a and R134a; and HFO refrigerants: R1234yf and R1234ze(E). It is concluded, from the theoretical analysis, that most of the new HFO/HFC mixtures perform under the HFC analyzed (although some experimental studies show the contrary) and, in most cases, do not meet the GWP restrictions approved by the European normative. Furthermore, some of the mixtures proposed would have problems due to their flammability.     

在家用／商用空调中用R32替代R22的探索

在R22的替代工作进入实质性阶段,但国内外成熟替代品又尚不明朗之际,本文在分析国内外R22替代物的现状、存在的问题以及国际上对环保工质要求的新趋向的前提下,探索提出在家用／商用空凋中使用R32替代R22的设想,并从其热物理性质、环保特性、安全性、热工性能、市场可获得性等几个方面,与现有的R22替代物R410A,R290和R1234yf等进行比较,认为R32是一种兼顾减排、安全、节能和市场诸方面要求的、很有前景的R22替代制冷剂。     

新型制冷剂R1234ze(E)及其混合工质研究进展

低GWP值制冷剂R1234ze(E)(trans-1,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene)作为R134a较为理想的替代品而被关注,但其单一成分的热力学性能和传输特性并不理想,在R1234ze(E)中混入R32成分可以有效改善其热力学性能。本文概述了低GWP值工质R1234ze(E)及其与R32混合物的热物性特征、传输特性及系统运行性能方面的研究现状,并与目前常用的制冷工质进行比较分析,指出R1234ze(E)与R32混合工质有望成为新型低GWP值替代工质。     

环保制冷剂CN-01的应用

广东南海生产的HC类制冷剂CN—01,其ODP值为0,GWP值为0,是一种新的节能型环保制冷剂,并在多种汽车空调和冰箱上进行了应用。直接注入R12系统,不用改变结构和更换冷冻油,就能正常工作,且降温迅速,充注量少。若对R12系统换上R600a专用压缩机,使用CN—01则节能效果更明显。并研究了应用CN—01时对其可燃性的多重预测与保护措施,确保使用CN—01的安全性。     

Refrigeration system performance using liquid-suction heat exchangersPerformance d''un système frigorifique utilisant des échangeurs liquide-vapeur à l''aspiration

Heat transfer devices are provided in many refrigeration systems to exchange energy between the cool gaseous refrigerant leaving the evaporator and warm liquid refrigerant exiting the condenser. These liquid-suction or suction-line heat exchangers can, in some cases, yield improved system performance while in other cases they degrade system performance. Although previous researchers have investigated performance of liquid-suction heat exchangers, this study can be distinguished from the previous studies in three ways. First, this paper identifies a new dimensionless group to correlate performance impacts attributable to liquid-suction heat exchangers. Second, the paper extends previous analyses to include new refrigerants. Third, the analysis includes the impact of pressure drops through the liquid-suction heat exchanger on system performance. It is shown that reliance on simplified analysis techniques can lead to inaccurate conclusions regarding the impact of liquid-suction heat exchangers on refrigeration system performance. From detailed analyses, it can be concluded that liquid-suction heat exchangers that have a minimal pressure loss on the low pressure side are useful for systems using R507A, R134a, R12, R404A, R290, R407C, R600, and R410A. The liquid-suction heat exchanger is detrimental to system performance in systems using R22, R32, and R717.     

Sobolev空间Hs(R)上框架的必要条件

本文着重研究了Sobolev空间H^s(R)上的框架。首先讨论了s．t．型框架，进而了考察了小波框架和基于加窗Fourier变换的框架，给出了各自的必要条件。本文的工作将空间L^2(R)上有关框架的结果推广到Sobolev空间上，从而丰富了Sobolev空间H^s(R)上框架的有关理论。     

A generalized correlation for the characteristics of adiabatic capillary tubes

The capillary tube is often served as an expansion device in small refrigeration and air-conditioning systems. In this paper, a generalized correlation for predicting the refrigerant mass flow rate through the adiabatic capillary tube is developed with approximate analytic solutions based on the extensive data for R12, R22, R134a, R290, R600a, R410A, R407C, and R404A, in which a homogeneous equilibrium model for two-phase flow is employed, and there is a subcooled liquid or saturated two-phase mixture at the inlet of the capillary tubes. The collected database about capillary tubes covers the inner diameter from 0.5 mm to 2 mm, the tube length from 0.5 m to 5 m, the condensing temperature from 20 °C to 60 °C, the subcooling from 0 °C to 20 °C, and the quality from 0 to 0.3 at the inlet. Assessments for the correlation are made with some experimental data for R12, R22, R134a, R290, R407C, R410A, and R404A obtained from the open literature and some existing correlations based on the experimental database also. The present correlation yields an average deviation of −0.83% and a standard deviation of 9.02% from the database.     

The effect of heat regeneration in refrigerating cycles with chlorofluorocarbon refrigerantsInfluence de l'échange de chaleur liquide-vapeur dans les cycles frigorifiques à frigorigènes chlorofluorocarbonés

Experimental measurements have been made on a single stage refrigeration cycle with and without heat exchange between condensed refrigerant and the vapour leaving the evaporator using R 12 and R 502 systems. Allowance has also been made for the presence of some oil in the evaporator as well as either vapour superheating or liquid droplet carry over by the vapour. Limited results are presented showing that an increase in the coefficient of performance is achieved by use of heat exchange with both R 12 and R 502, the more so as the ratio of condensing to evaporating pressure rises. This effect can be as much as 20%.     

The effect of heat regeneration in refrigerating cycles with chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants

Experimental measurements have been made on a single stage refrigeration cycle with and without heat exchange between condensed refrigerant and the vapour leaving the evaporator using R 12 and R 502 systems. Allowance has also been made for the presence of some oil in the evaporator as well as either vapour superheating or liquid droplet carry over by the vapour. Limited results are presented showing that an increase in the coefficient of performance is achieved by use of heat exchange with both R 12 and R 502, the more so as the ratio of condensing to evaporating pressure rises. This effect can be as much as 20%.     

The pluses and minuses of R0.

The concept of the basic reproduction number (R0) occupies a central place in epidemic theory. The value of R0 determines the proportion of the population that becomes infected over the course of a (modelled) epidemic. In many models, (i) an endemic infection can persist only if R0>1, (ii) the value of R0 provides a direct measure of the control effort required to eliminate the infection, and (iii) pathogens evolve to maximize their value of R0. These three statements are not universally true. In this paper, some exceptions to them are discussed, based on the extensions of the SIR model.