Capsicum--production, technology, chemistry, and quality. Part III. Chemistry of the color, aroma, and pungency stimuli

The spice capsicum, the fruits of the genus Capsicum (Family Solanaceae), is a very popular food additive in many parts of the world, valued for the important sensory attributes of color, pungency, and aroma. A large number of varieties are widely cultivated and traded. The characteristic carotenoids of the bright red paprika and cayenne-type chillies, the high character impact aroma stimuli, the methoxy pyrazine of green bell capsicum, the esters of ripe tabasco and the highly potent pungency stimuli, and the capsaicinoids of African and other Asian varieties of chillies, have been of great interest to chemists and biochemists. Research workers in other disciplines such as genetics and breeding, agriculture, and technology have been interested in this spice to develop new varieties with combinations of different optimal levels of the stimuli for the sensory attributes and to maximize production of storable products for specific end uses. Physiologists have been intensely studying the action of the highly potent pungency stimuli and social psychologists the curious aspect of growing acceptance and preference for the initially unacceptable pungency sensation. In the sequential review of all these aspects of the fruit spice Capsicum, the earlier two parts covered history, botany, cultivation and primary processing, and processed products, standards, world production, and trade. In Part III, the chemistry, the compositional variations, synthesis and biosynthesis of the functional components, the carotenoids, the volatiles, and the capsaicinoids are comprehensively reviewed.     

Capsicum--production, technology, chemistry, and quality. Part IV. Evaluation of quality

Capsicum fruits are popular worldwide and are used in the cuisines of both the developing and the developed countries. With its different varieties, forms, and uses, the spice capsicum contributes to the entire gamut of sensory experience--color as finely ground paprika powder or extract in sausages, goulash, cheese, and snacks; both pungency and color as the many varieties of chillies used in Mexican, African, Indian, and southeast Asian cuisines; color, aroma, and mild pungency as the fresh green chillies used in many of the growing countries; and appearance, color, aroma, and texture as fresh fruit in salads and as a pickled and canned product. In three earlier parts in this series, the varieties, cultivation, and primary processing; the processed products, world production, and trade; and the chemistry of the color, aroma, and pungency stimuli have been reviewed. In this part, the evaluation of quality through instrumental determination of the causal components and the sensory evaluation of color, aroma, and pungency are discussed. Several methods for quantitative determination of the stimuli and the sensory evaluation of the responses to the stimuli are reviewed. The problems of sensory evaluation of color, aroma, and pungency, the dominant attributes for validation of the instrumentally determined values for carotenoids, volatiles, or particular fractions, and total and individual capsaicinoids are specifically discussed. Summarized details of selected instrumental methods for evaluating the stimuli, which are either validated by correlation to sensorily perceived responses or to adopted standards, are given along with representative data obtained for discussing the adequacy and reliability of the methods. Pungency as a specific gustatory perception and the many methods proposed to evaluate this quality are discussed. A recommended objective procedure for obtaining reproducible values is discussed, and a method for relating different panel results is shown. With such a method, highly significant correlations have been shown between estimated total capsaicinoids and the determined pungency. The estimation of total capsaicinoids by any simple, reliable method is shown to be adequate for quality control of pungency of Capsicum fruits.     

3类辣椒对鲊广椒细菌类群和品质的影响

为了探讨3类辣椒对鲊广椒细菌类群和品质的影响,本研究分别以小米椒（Capsicum frutescens Linn.）、二荆条辣椒（Capsicum annuum L.）和菜椒（Capsicum annuum L. var. grossum (L.) Sendt.）为试验组进行了鲊广椒的制作,同时设置不添加任何蔬菜和只添加芹菜（Apium graveolens var. rapaceum）的2个对照组,并在此基础上采用电子舌和电子鼻技术对鲊广椒的品质进行了数字化评价,并结合高通量测序技术对其细菌类群进行了解析,最后对鲊广椒品质和优势菌属之间的相关关系进行了揭示。结果发现,较之小米椒制作的鲊广椒,二荆条和菜椒制作的鲊广椒细菌群系的多样性和丰度均较高。添加二荆条和菜椒制作的鲊广椒主要以乳酸杆菌（Lactobacillus）为主,其平均相对含量分别为77.53%和94.41%,而添加小米椒制作的鲊广椒以假单胞菌（Pseudomonas）为主,平均相对含量为67.35%。较之小米椒制作的鲊广椒,二荆条和青椒制作的鲊广椒酸味和芳香类物质的含量明显偏高,而挥发性物质中有机硫化物、萜类物质和氮氧化物等含量明显偏低。经皮尔逊（Pearson）相关性分析发现,提升鲊广椒发酵体系中Lactobacillus的含量能明显抑制鲊广椒中的不良风味,提升芳香类物质的含量。鲊广椒因其酸辣的口感而广受欢迎,由于菜椒辣度较低,因而选用二荆条辣椒作为主要原料进行鲊广椒的制作对提升产品的整体品质具有积极作用。     

Pepper — chemistry,technology, and quality evaluation

Pepper is the most important of the spices, with a long history. This article critically reviews our knowledge of the chemistry, processing, and quality evaluation of the product, with emphasis on the constituents contributing to the sensory properties of the spice for which it is valued in food. Other areas briefly summarized include its history, horticultural aspects, production and trade data, and physiological effects. Allied spices and aromatic members of the same family are also considered briefly.     

ANALYSIS OF THE PUNGENT PRINCIPLES OF Capsicum annuum BY COMBINED GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTROMETRY

SUMMARY— The pungent principles of Capsicum annuum includes at least five closely related compounds . Four of these pungent compounds-capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin-were separated by gas chromatography with a 3% SE-30 column and identified by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Separation of these compounds into oleoresin capsicum by gas chromatography is also reported.     

Drying temperature,endogenous antioxidants and capsaicinoids affect carotenoid stability in paprika (red pepper spice)

The major carotenoids and carotenoid esters in Capsicum annuum L. during thermal dehydration of pepper and storage of the ground product (paprika) were examined with special focus on the role of endogenous antioxidants such as vitamins E and C and capsaicinoids, the pungent materials in hot spice red pepper. A high‐performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method was developed to achieve excellent separation and accurate detection of different carotenoid classes including free xanthophylls, monoesters, carotenes and di‐esters. The newly developed method included gradient elution on a reversed‐phase column with increasing proportions of isopropanol. The results indicated that presence of capsaicinoids in pungent pepper had a favourable effect on the stability of carotenoids during thermal drying. Among various di‐esters those of lutein and zeaxanthine, as well as the mono‐ester of β‐cryptoxanthin were more stable than those of capsorubin and capsanthin, pointing to the possible role of epoxide and carbonyl groups in the susceptibility of carotenoids. An Arrhenius plot for degradation of carotenoids, tocopherols and ascorbic acid as a function of drying temperature showed linear relationships for all components, with ascorbic acid being the most sensitive. During storage in a refrigerator for 3 months the paprika showed high degradation of all the examined carotenoids particularly in samples prepared from pods dried at high temperatures (90 and 100 °C). An exception was for β‐cryptoxanthin mono‐ester and violaxanthin di‐esters in a non‐pungent variety. The amounts of these carotenoids lost during storage were slightly affected by the change in drying temperature. Strong correlation was found between retention of colour in stored paprika and the initial content of ascorbic acid, but not with that of tocopherols or capsaicinoids. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Capsicum production, technology, chemistry, and quality. Part 1: History, botany, cultivation, and primary processing

The genus Capsicum (Fam. Solanaceae) was known to ancient cultures and was more recently historically associated with the discovery of the New World. This genus provides many species and varieties used in flavoring foods popular in the cuisines of many parts of the world. From the pungent chilli to the colorful paprika and the bell pepper, with its remarkable aroma, the genus is of great interest for its chemistry, sensory attributes, and physiological action. The Capsicums, among the spices, are second only to black pepper in trade both in volume and value. The production of the different pungency forms, the processed seasonings, and the concentrated oleoresins, through technologically advanced processes and in specified standard grades, are critically reviewed. The pungency of Capsicum fruits, its evaluation, chemical structure relationship, its increasing acceptance and preference by a variety of populations are of great research interest. The wide traditional use in the growing regions and its intense physiological effects have attracted the attention of researchers of many different disciplines. These aspects are reviewed in four sequential parts. Part I deals with history, botany, cultivation, and primary processing.     

Biological Activities of Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum) and Its Pungent Principle Capsaicin: A Review

Capsaicin, the pungent alkaloid of red pepper (Capsicum annuum) has been extensively studied for its biological effects which are of pharmacological relevance. These include: cardio protective influence, antilithogenic effect, antiinflammatory, and analgesia, thermogenic influence, and beneficial effects on gastrointestinal system. Therefore, capsaicinoids may have the potential clinical value for pain relief, cancer prevention and weight loss. It has been shown that capsaicinoids are potential agonists of capsaicin receptor (TRPV1). They could exert the effects not only through the receptor-dependent pathway but also through the receptor-independent one. The involvement of neuropeptide Substance P, serotonin, and somatostatin in the pharmacological actions of capsaicin has been extensively investigated. Topical application of capsaicin is proved to alleviate pain in arthritis, postoperative neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, psoriasis, etc. Toxicological studies on capsaicin administered by different routes are documented. Capsaicin inhibits acid secretion, stimulates alkali and mucus secretion and particularly gastric mucosal blood flow which helps in prevention and healing of gastric ulcers. Antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of capsaicin are established in a number of studies. Chemopreventive potential of capsaicin is evidenced in cell line studies. The health beneficial hypocholesterolemic influence of capsaicin besides being cardio protective has other implications, viz., prevention of cholesterol gallstones and protection of the structural integrity of erythrocytes under conditions of hypercholesterolemia. Beneficial influences of capsaicin on gastrointestinal system include digestive stimulant action and modulation of intestinal ultrastructure so as to enhance permeability to micronutrients.     

基于电子鼻和气相-离子迁移谱对美人椒酱的风味分析

以发酵前后和炒制前后不同加工工艺的6种美人椒酱为研究对象,采用电子鼻(E-nose)和气相-离子迁移谱(GC-IMS)联用技术,对比分析美人椒酱的挥发性有机物(VOCs)风味成分。结果表明:电子鼻主成分PC1和PC2累计贡献率为97.068%,说明电子鼻所提取的主成分信息能够反应样品的主要特征信息,判别因子分析(DFA)总判别率为95.435%。利用GC-IMS联用技术,对发酵前后和炒制前后美人椒酱的二维、三维及指纹图谱的分析可知,香辛料发酵后的美人椒酱特征峰在A区域,生美人椒酱的特征峰在B区域,发酵美人椒酱的特征峰在C区域,发酵美人椒酱炒制后的特征峰在D区域,不同加工工艺的美人椒酱的特征吸收峰明显不同,GC-IMS能较好地区分采用不同加工工艺的美人椒酱。因此,利用电子鼻与GC-IMS的快速、无损、准确的特点,根据美人椒酱的VOCs能够很好地将不同加工工艺的美人椒酱进行区分。     

Quality Attributes of Various Varieties of Korean Red Pepper Powders (Capsicum annuum L.) and Color Stability During Sunlight Exposure

ABSTRACT: The levels of capsaicinoids and carotenoids and ASTA color values in Korean red pepper powders ( Capsicum annuum , L.) were 10.54-250.87mg/100g, 187-335mg/100g, and 64.55-124.07, respectively. The investigation of decoloring effects caused by sunlight exposure was carried out over 42 d. ASTA color values, which had been 18.35-64.56, were decreased by more than 50% after 42 d. During sunlight exposure, the L* value was increased, and a* and b* values were decreased in colorimetric values. The a* value showed a markedly decrease. Properties like higher C* values and lower ̊_ab and δE*_ab values can be regarded as very effective parameters for the convenient assessment of color quality in red pepper powder.     

Characterization of 12 Capsicum varieties by evaluation of their carotenoid profile and pungency determination

In this research 12 different varieties of Capsicum cultivars belonging to three species (Capsicum chinense, Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens) and of various colour, shape, and dimension have been characterised by their carotenoids and capsaicinoids content. The berries were cultivated in the region Emilia-Romagna, in Northern Italy. The native carotenoid composition was directly investigated by an HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS methodology, for the first time. In total, 52 carotenoids have been identified and considerable variation in carotenoid composition was observed among the various cultivars investigated. Among the cultivars with red colour, some Habanero, Naga morich and Sinpezon showed an high β-carotene content, whereas Serrano, Tabasco and Jalapeno showed an high capsanthin content and the absence of β-carotene. Habanero golden and Scotch Bonnet showed a high lutein, α-carotene and β-carotene amounts, and Habanero orange was rich in antheraxanthin, capsanthin and zeaxanthin. Cis-cryptocapsin was present in high amount in Habanero chocolate.     

Comparative Study of Capsaicinoid Composition in Capsicum Peppers Grown in Brazil

Twenty different varieties of Capsicum pepper cultivars belonging to four species (Capsicum chinense, Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum baccatum) were characterized in terms of their capsaicinoid and total phenolic content. The peppers were sown in a farm in the southeastern region of São Paulo State. The determination of capsaicinoids was performed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography. The total phenolic content was determined spectrophotometrically with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Results were expressed as µg capsaicinoid/g fresh pepper and as Scoville heat unit. A wide variation was observed among the compositions of capsaicinoids. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin were the most abundant peaks. Capsaicinoids were not identified in the pepper varieties Cheiro Verde, Cambuci Verde, Cambuci Vermelha, and Biquinho. The spiciest pepper was Naga Jolokia (119,016 Scoville heat unit). Regarding the phenolic contents, a large variability was observed. Total phenolic content ranged from 0.35 mg gallic acid equivalent/g in Cambuci Verde to 3.06 mg gallic acid equivalent/g in Naga Jolokia. The current study may benefit consumers, the food, and pharmaceutical industries due to the increasing interest in pharmacological compounds present in hot and sweet Capsicum peppers.     

贵州喀斯特地区土壤-辣椒体系重金属元素的生物迁移积累特征

采集喀斯特地区(遵义虾子与贵阳花溪)的辣椒及种植土壤样品,利用电感耦合等离子体质谱仪和电感耦合等离子体原子发射光谱仪检测辣椒和土壤中13种重金属元素(As、Cd、Pb、Hg、Cr、Cu、Zn、Ni、Tl、Co、Sb、Sn、Mn)的含量,探讨土壤-辣椒体系重金属元素的生物迁移积累特征。结果表明:与HJ/T 332—2006《食用农产品产地环境质量评价标准》相比,土壤中Cd平均含量超标了9.33%,点位超标率为57.89%。与GB 2762—2012《食品中污染物限量》相比,遵义地区辣椒中Cd含量部分超标,超标率为85.71%,花溪地区2个辣椒样品Cr含量超标,分别超标了15.36%和12.18%。辣椒的13种重金属生物富集系数大小顺序为CdCuZnHgSnTlMnSbNiCoCrAsPb,辣椒Cd的生物富集系数为1.138,Pb的生物富集系数为0.001 9。辣椒中Co、Ni、Sn含量与土壤对应金属含量呈显著正相关(P0.05),其余重金属含量与土壤对应元素含量无显著相关性(P0.05)。食用辣椒途径的Cd和Cr每周重金属摄入量远小于世界卫生组织提出的专门针对敏感人群临时性每周人体可耐受摄入量,辣椒Cd、Cr超标不会对人体健康造成影响。在贵州喀斯特Cd高背景值地区种植辣椒应注重辣椒对Cd的富集。     

关于辣椒产品开发的几点构想

辣椒中具有保健功能的生理活性成分是辣椒产品开发的重要资源。目前我国辣椒产品还基本停留在传统的工艺和产品上，辣椒产品从产品形式、食用状态、感官质量、产品形象、食用美感在内的商品全方位深层次提升不足，成为制约辣椒产业产品层次提升的瓶颈。运用体验经济理念，通过辣椒调味品的精品化，是实现辣椒产业增值重要途径。     

Cardamom — production,technology, chemistry,and quality

Cardamom, Eleltaria cardamomum Maton var. Miniscula Burkill (Fam. Zingiberaceae) known as true or lesser cardamom is the widely cultivated variety and important in the world trade. It occupies a high second or third place in world trade, being a high priced spice. It belongs to the sweet spices group and is used predominantly to flavor sweets, baked goods, and coffee, particularly in the Arab countries. This monograph critically reviews the post‐harvest handling and processing and the chemistry of the volatiles. The components contributing to the characteristic aroma for which the spice is valued are specifically considered. Gas chromatographic analysis for quality control and attempts at evaluating the aroma quality by sensory profile are discussed in relation to regional varieties, and processing variables. The areas in which further research is required are indicated. The botanical and cultivation aspects and production and trade of the different growing and consuming regions are briefly considered. Available information on other “cardamoms” from related species and genera are summarized.     

Capsicum--production, technology, chemistry, and quality--Part II. Processed products, standards, world production and trade

Capsicums, as a spice, have been known since the beginning of civilization and historically associated with the discovery of the New World. The genus Capsicum (Fam. Solanaceae) provides many varieties and adds color, pungency, and aroma to the cuisines of most of the world. From the pungent chilli, of interest also to pharmaceuticals, to the colorful paprika and the bell capsicums with its remarkable aroma, the genus has been of great interest for its chemistry and physiological action. Pungency as a sensory attribute, its evaluation, structure-activity relationship, and its increasing acceptance and preference by diverse populations of the world are of great interest to many research disciplines. In a comprehensive review of all aspects in four sequential parts, Part I deals with History, Botany, Cultivation, and Primary Processing (CRC Critical Review, Food Science and Nutrition). The Capsicums among the spices are second only to black pepper in trades both in volume and value. The production of the different forms of this spice as ground, specialty seasonings, and as the concentrated oleoresins through technologically advanced processes, proposed newer products, the standard to control quality of the different products, world production, trade, and prospects are reviewed in detail in this, Part II.     

辣椒素的分析方法及辣度分级

对国内外在辣椒果实中的辣椒素类物质化学组成、结构及辣椒素类物质的定性、定量分析方法等方面的研究进行了综述,并进一步阐述了辣椒及制品辣度分级的方法,并对该领域的发展前景进行了展望。     

辣椒提取液的抑菌活性分析

用辣椒的乙醇提取液对12种常见的模式致病菌株进行体外抑菌试验,结果表明,该提取液对细菌、霉菌和酵母菌均表现出一定的抑菌作用,其抑菌效果随浓度的增大而增强。其中提取液对葡萄牙假丝酵母的抑菌效果最明显,对根癌土壤杆菌抑菌效果最差。此外,同一浓度提取物对不同菌株的抑菌作用不同,其抑菌效力对菌种具有选择性,并且其抑制真菌的效果明显强于细菌。HPLC分析表明,辣椒提取液中的主要化学成分为辣椒素,其含量为0.132mg/mL。     

正交法优化超声波辅助溶剂提取甜椒红色素工艺研究

以经过预处理的红甜椒为起始原料,由冷冻干燥法制得红甜椒粉,经过筛选,选取乙酸乙酯为提取溶剂。在此基础上,通过单因素试验考察了温度、提取时间、料液比、超声时间等主要工艺参数对提取效果的影响,并通过正交试验设计对提取工艺条件进行了优化。正交试验结果表明,提取甜椒红色素的最优方案为:提取温度75℃、料液比1∶24、提取时间3.5 h、超声时间30 min,并经3次重复验证试验确认了这一最优工艺条件。     

Prevalence,level and distribution of Salmonella in shipments of imported capsicum and sesame seed spice offered for entry to the United States: Observations and modeling results

In response to increased concerns about spice safety, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) initiated research to characterize the prevalence and levels of Salmonella in imported spices. 299 imported dried capsicum shipments and 233 imported sesame seed shipments offered for entry to the United States were sampled. Observed Salmonella shipment prevalence was 3.3% (1500 g examined; 95% CI 1.6–6.1%) for capsicum and 9.9% (1500 g; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 6.3–14%) for sesame seed. Within shipment contamination was not inconsistent with a Poisson distribution. Shipment mean Salmonella level estimates among contaminated shipments ranged from 6 × 10⁻⁴ to 0.09 (capsicum) or 6 × 10⁻⁴ to 0.04 (sesame seed) MPN/g. A gamma-Poisson model provided the best fit to observed data for both imported shipments of capsicum and imported shipments of sesame seed sampled in this study among the six parametric models considered. Shipment mean levels of Salmonella vary widely between shipments; many contaminated shipments contain low levels of contamination. Examination of sampling plan efficacy for identifying contaminated spice shipments from these distributions indicates that sample size of spice examined is critical. Sampling protocols examining 25 g samples are predicted to be able to identify a small fraction of contaminated shipments of imported capsicum or sesame seeds.