环面型无级变速传动的速比建模与应力分析

利用非定轴空间点啮合理论分析了环面型牵引式无级变速传动的速比变化过程,并由此建立了调速油缸的行程与速比之间的对应关系模型,该模型为速比的精确控制奠定了基础。在考虑切向牵引力对接触区域的影响条件下,采用三维弹性接触有限元法分析了接触区内的接触应力和子表面切应力的分布状况,该分析结果可用于动力传动单元的接触疲劳寿命设计。     

考虑摩擦因数与滑动速度相关时的轮轨滚动接触有限元分析

使用与滑动速度相关的摩擦因数替代库伦摩擦定律中的常系数,结合mixed Lagrangian/Eulerian方法建立轮轨滚动接触有限元模型,分析牵引力主导的蠕滑工况下的干燥状态的轮轨滚动接触特性。通过与摩擦因数取值为常数的轮轨滚动接触分析结果对比发现:与滑动速度相关的摩擦因数对轮轨滚动接触最大接触应力和接触斑面积影响不大,均在1%以内;但是对轮轨接触斑内最大Mises应力、最大纵向切应力、最大横向切应力和最大等效塑性应变影响较大,特别是对最大纵向切应力影响幅度近20%;更需要引起注意的是对轮轨滚动接触摩擦力矢量分布和切向塑性应变分布影响明显,这对轮轨滚动接触疲劳损伤分析非常重要。     

Traction Forces at Solid-Lubricated Rolling/Sliding Contacts

A single-element traction rig was used to measure the traction forces at a solid-lubricated contact of a ball against a flat disk at room temperature under combine rolling and sliding. The load and speed conditions were selected to match those anticipated for bearing applications in adiabatic diesel engines. Traction vs slide/roll ratio curves were similar to those for liquid lubricants but the traction forces were an order of magnitude higher. The test data were used to derive equations to predict traction force as a function of contact stress and rolling speed. The data showed that the magnitude of traction forces were almost the same for all the lubricants tested. The lubricants, should, therefore, be selected on the basis of their ability to limit the wear of contact surfaces.     

Effects of Slide/Roll Ratio on the Behaviours of Grease Reservoir and Film Thickness of Point Contact

The film formation mechanism of lithium complex grease under starved condition was proposed based on the analysis of the relationship between grease reservoir and the finger-shaped lubricant along the rolling track using a laboratory built ball-on-disc test rig. Film thicknesses with rolling time at different slide/roll ratios were measured and discussed in detail. Experimental results showed that starvation occurred soon after the operation under pure rolling condition. In contrast, the contact remained fully flooded under slide–roll condition. The measurement of grease fingers proved that slide/roll ratio contributed to replenishing the contact by transferring more grease to the vicinity of the contact to form a lager lubricant reservoir. The volume of grease fingers, the inlet lubricant supply and the film thickness at different slide/roll ratios were found to be in good agreement.     

Ring crack propagation in silicon nitride under rolling contact

Silicon nitride has been found to have the optimum combination of properties which are suitable for rolling element bearing applications to withstand high loads, severe environments, and high speeds. Surface ring cracks are difficult to detect but are found on the surface of silicon nitride balls. These ring crack defects decrease the rolling contact fatigue life considerably. This paper presents an experimental study and numerical analysis of ring crack propagation in rolling contact. The contribution of this study is to provide understanding of ring crack propagation behaviour and life prediction in rolling contact. Rolling contact tests are performed on the silicon nitride/steel elements. Silicon nitride ball surfaces are examined before testing using a dye-penetrant technique and optical microscopy. The surfaces are examined using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy during testing and after failure. The numerical calculations are based on a 3D model of ring crack growth. The rolling contact loading is simulated by a repeated Hertzian surface load with normal pressure and tangential traction. Fracture mechanics analysis is utilised to determine the stress intensity along the crack front and the stress intensity factors are analysed using a 3D boundary element model. Life predictions from the present calculations are in line with the experimental observations.     

Surface initiated fatigue of pearlitic and bainitic steels under water lubricated rolling/sliding contact

The rolling contact fatigue behavior of steels that are, or could be, used for railroad rails is reviewed. Laboratory tests that reproduce the type of cracks observed in service rails have been employed to study the effects of maximum Hertzian contact pressure and slide/roll ratio on fatigue performance under water lubricated conditions. A comparison has been made of pearlitic and low/medium carbon, carbide free, bainitic steels. The development of ratchetting strains has been investigated and an empirical model produced.     

A numerical study of fatigue life in non-Newtonian thermal EHL rolling–sliding contacts with spinning

This paper presents a study on fatigue life in non-Newtonian thermal elastohydrodynamic lubrication (TEHL) point contacts with spinning. A numerical procedure is developed and extended to rolling contact fatigue (RCF) life. The results show that the effect of entraining velocity on the RCF life is closely related to ellipticity. The RCF life first decreases steeply and then gradually with increase in slide–roll ratio. However, the RCF life may increase slightly at a large slide–roll ratio. Spinning is beneficial for reduction of longitudinal friction coefficient; however, even for smooth surface contact, the RCF life can be slightly reduced by spinning.     

车轮踏面硌伤处的瞬态滚动接触应力分析

通过建立三维轮轨瞬态滚动接触有限元模型,研究带有踏面硌伤的车轮在指定牵引或制动力条件下的瞬态滚动接触行为,分析不同速度、硌伤几何和材料塑性变形对踏面硌伤处滚动接触行为的影响。结果表明:在60~300km/h速度范围内,车轮硌伤所激起的接触力随速度的增加而降低;初期硌伤可能存在的边缘"堆起"能大大增加接触应力的水平,或可导致滚动接触疲劳的萌生;对于具有尖锐边缘的硌伤,弹塑性等效应力水平仍可明显大于车轮材料的强度极限,即可发生持续的塑性变形,易于萌生疲劳;相对而言,对于具有钝边缘的硌伤,相应的接触应力水平要低得多,车轮偏于安全。     

Surface failure of soft and surface-hardened steel rollers in rolling contact

To study the mechanism of rolling contact fatigue failure, annealed thermally refined 0.43% carbon steel and case-hardened nickel chromium steel rollers were tested under conditions of pure rolling and sliding/rolling. The failure mechanism was examined by fractographic observation and by calculation of the amplitudes of the ratio of stress to strength.It was found that pitting cracks initiated on the roller surface and were induced by the normal stress in the circumferential direction of the roller or by the maximum principal stress. Spalling cracks initiated beneath the surface and were induced by the orthogonal shear stress.     

氮化硅陶瓷球滚动接触疲劳寿命模型

针对球与圆柱接触模型中的陶瓷球,利用WEIBULL断裂统计方法导出球疲劳失效概率与寿命之间的关系方程,在相关额定寿命与最大接触应力的数值解基础上,基于最大主拉应力,构建氮化硅陶瓷球的滚动接触疲劳寿命与接触应力的数学模型.经与不同接触应力水平下的滚动接触疲劳寿命试验结果验证,表明该拉应力一寿命模型的正确性,从而验证了氮化硅陶瓷球的滚动接触疲劳失效源于最大主拉应力,而非基于最大切应力的设想.通过与L.P切应力一寿命模型预测结果的比较,表明拉应力一寿命模型适合于陶瓷球的接触疲劳寿命预测.     

Severe wear of rolling/sliding contacts

The wear of wheel flanges against the sides of rails is shown to be caused by rolling/sliding contacts sustaining high cyclic stresses at low slide/roll ratios. When these conditions are reproduced in the laboratory severe metallic wear is initiated when the resultant shear stress, which is dependent on both normal (pressure) and tangential (friction) forces, exceeds a critical value. The results are discussed in terms of Johnson's shakedown limit and the material's stress/strain characteristics. It is concluded that the severe wear of contacts at low slide/roll ratios is caused by high resolved cyclic stresses that result in continual plastic deformation of the surface layers.     

Rolling/sliding contact fatigue life prediction of sintered and hardened steels

Among the several competing mass production methods, powder metallurgy (PM) techniques give much contribution as a means of saving material and energy. It also delivers the material with good fatigue properties that are good substitute for the conventional materials. Application of PM parts is getting wider in many areas such as automotive parts, agricultural equipment, business machine, electrical and electronics, hardware and industrial applications, etc. Many structural machine components made of PM route like gears and bearings experiences rolling–sliding contact fatigue conditions (RSCF). Contact fatigue is a type of failure commonly found in the surface of bearings, gears etc., and this type of failures decide the useful life of these structural parts. Presence of friction between the bodies normally encountered in service, many influence the contact fatigue behavior. The use of new materials and in particular sintered materials requires a thorough understanding of contact fatigue behavior for better product design and development. RSCF on sintered and hardened of 7 gm/cc density (FLC 4608-110HT, Fe–Ni PM steel) were carried out in a specially designed test rig for different contact parameters such as contact stress and slide to roll ratio. Twin-disc type rolling/sliding experimental set-up has been developed in laboratory to simulate the sliding and rolling between two rollers. Contact stress distribution and RSCF life prediction models suitable for sintered and hardened steel were also developed. The predicted life was compared with the experimental RSCF life for sintered and hardened steel.     

Stress Concentration in the Vicinity of a Hole Defect Under Conditions of Hertzian Contact

Two-dimensional photoelastic stress analyses were conducted for epoxy resin models containing a hole defect under the conditions of Hertzian contact. Stress concentrations around the defect were determined as a function of several parameters. These were hole diameter, its vertical distance from the contact surface, and the horizontal distance from the Hertzian contact area. Also determined was the effect of tangential traction (generated by a friction coefficient of 0.1) on the stress concentration.

Sharp stress concentrations occur in the vicinity of both the left and the right side of the hole. The stress concentration becomes more distinct the larger the hole diameter and the smaller the distance between the hole and the contact surface.

The stress concentration is greatest when the disk imposing a normal load is located at the contact surface directly over the hole. The magnitude and the location of stress concentration varies with the distance between the Hertzian contact area and the hole. Taking into account the stress amplitude, the area which can be involved in a process of rolling contact fatigue seems to be confined to a shallow region at both sides of the hole. The effect of tangential traction is comparatively small on the stress concentration around tile hole.     

Rolling contact fatigue of alumina ceramics sprayed on steel roller under pure rolling contact condition

The rolling contact fatigue of sprayed alumina ceramics with a nominal composition of Al₂O₃–2.3 mass% TiO₂ was studied with a two-roller test machine under a pure rolling contact condition with oil lubricant. The influence of undercoating of sprayed Ni-based alloy on the rolling contact fatigue was investigated. The failure mode of all sprayed rollers was spalling caused by subsurface cracking. The undercoating did not contribute to the improvement of the rolling contact fatigue life. The elastic modulus of the alumina sprayed layer evaluated with the nano-indentation method was around 85 GPa. The depths of the observed subsurface cracks corresponded approximately to the depths where the orthogonal shear stress or the maximum shear stress calculated with two-dimensional FEM became maximum.     

车轮多边形激励下的滚动接触疲劳裂纹瞬态扩展行为研究

利用ANSYS/LS-DYNA建立带车轮多边形的三维轮轨滚动接触疲劳裂纹扩展模型,将真实轮轨间瞬态滚滑和高频动力作用考虑在内,分析车轮多边形和连续钢轨裂纹造成的瞬态接触载荷对钢轨裂纹动态扩展行为的影响。速度250 km/h牵引工况的结果表明:零间隙多裂纹对法向轮轨力的影响甚微,但会造成切向轮轨力不可忽略的波动;车轮多边形会造成法向和切向轮轨力显著的周期性波动,如0. 1 mm波深23阶多边形会使得各裂纹面最大法向和切向接触力较圆顺工况分别增长19. 6%、34. 1%;任一裂纹面内法向和切向接触应力在接触斑滚过的0. 22 ms内发生了复杂的瞬态变化,进一步导致各裂纹的最大裂尖应力场强度因子的周期性波动,影响裂纹动态扩展行为;随着车轮多边形波深和阶数的增加,上述各种波动的幅度均会变大,加速裂纹扩展。     

On Mechanisms of Fatigue Life Enhancement by Surface Dents in Heavily Loaded Rolling Line Contacts

This paper studies mechanisms of surface dents in enhancing the fatigue life of rolling bearings previously reported in Akamatsu et al. (1). First, transient micro-EHL analyses of heavily loaded contacts between rough surfaces with multiple dents are conducted under near rolling conditions. Contacts with various dent dimensions, dent arrangements under different loading and kinematic conditions are investigated. Results show that surface dents generate no favorable micro-EHL effects to enhance the contact fatigue life. Subsequent analyses, in conjunction with other published studies, suggest that the fatigue life enhancement likely comes from the reduced local traction at asperity contacts through the “oil pots” effects of the dents. The effects of the surface dents on contact fatigue life may depend on the lubrication regime in which the contact is operating being favorable in poor lubrication conditions but adverse in well-lubricated contacts. Since rolling bearings are usually designed to operate in a healthy regime of lubrication, fatigue life enhancement by artificially introducing dents on bearing surfaces may not extend to field applications.     

Performance evaluation of multilayer thin film coatings under mixed rolling–sliding dry contact conditions

This paper focuses on the application of advanced finite element analysis to simulate the response of complex multilayer coatings when subjected to mixed rolling–sliding dry contact conditions, typical of those experienced by heavily loaded gear tooth flanks. In this study, a versatile model is developed to investigate the response of a variety of complex coatings. Through the investigation of three advanced surface coatings the developed model is shown to offer detailed subsurface stress and strain information, quantifying the benefits provided by the application of each coating.A number of rolling contact fatigue tests were also conducted to complement the computational simulations. An adapted twin disc testing machine was used to investigate the progressive wear rates of the three advanced surface coatings when subjected to mixed rolling–sliding contact at high load and in dry conditions. The result is a clear indication that advanced surface coating techniques can provide significant improvements in wear resistance and surface durability. From the rolling contact fatigue experiments conducted in this study, a multilayer tungsten carbide/carbon coating was shown to provide the most significant increase in surface durability with a 16-fold reduction in measured weight loss compared to the uncoated substrate over the 145,000 cycle test duration investigated.     

Decarburisation and rolling contact fatigue of a rail steel

Decarburisation is present on all new rails and unless ground off, will be on the running surface once installed. This paper presents a detailed investigation into the effect of decarburisation of rolling contact fatigue and wear. Twin disc testing has been used to study the phenomenon under water-lubricated rolling/sliding contact. Rail discs have been cut from grade 220 rail and heat-treated to give samples with varying depths of decarburisation. It was found that as the depth of decarburisation increased the wear rate of the rail disc increased while that of the wheel disc decreased. The effect of decarburisation on rolling contact fatigue was to increase the crack growth rate of samples with increasing depth. Cracks under rolling contact fatigue were propagated by contact stresses via the fluid pressure mechanism and influenced by microstructure. The effect of decarburisation was predicted to have little effect on rail/wheel contact when scaled from the laboratory tests using the depth of maximum shear stress.     

THREE DIMENSIONAL ELASTO-PLASTIC CONTACT BOUNDARY ELEMENT ANALYSIS FOR ROLLING WITH CONSIDERATION OF FRICTION

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Mechanism of dent initiated flaking and bearing life enhancement technology under contaminated lubrication condition: Part I: Effect of tangential force on dent initiated flaking

In this paper, we have clarified experimentally the mechanism of dent initiated flaking as observed in rolling element bearings operating under contaminated lubrication conditions. A characteristic of dent initiated flaking is the initiation of cracks on the trailing edge of dents relative to the rolling direction. Based on the results of twin-disk testing and ball-on-rod rolling contact fatigue (RCF) testing conducted, we have confirmed that the crack initiation at the edge of a dent is strong influenced by the tangential force. The tangential force leads to the generation of a large tensile stress at the trailing edge of dents, which in turn leads to crack initiation.