Developing the Processing Maps Using the Hyperbolic Sine Constitutive Equation

Hot compression tests were performed on a duplex stainless steel at temperatures ranging from 1223 K to 1473 K (950 °C to 1200 °C) and strain rates from 0.001 to 100 s^?1. The constitutive analysis of flow stress was carried out using the hyperbolic sine function, and the material constants were determined at two typical strains of 0.3 and 0.7. The power dissipation map, instability map, and processing map for the material were developed for strains of 0.3 and 0.7. The developed processing maps were based on the hyperbolic sine as well as the conventional power-law constitutive equations. The efficiency of power dissipation (η) varied from 12 to 60 pct over the studied temperature and strain rate. The highest value of η was obtained at strain rates below 0.01 s^?1, whereas the lowest value of η was observed at the intermediate strain rates. The instability region in sin h-based processing map was only observed in the range of 1423 K to 1473 K (1150 °C to 1200 °C) and at a strain rate of 100 s^?1, while the conventional processing map did not predict any instability region. Optical microscopy observations were more consistent with the results of the sin h-based processing map and indicated that the instability regime at high temperatures and high strain rates was due to the development of adiabatic shear bands.     

Physical genome map of the unicellular cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002

A physical restriction map of the genome of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002 was assembled from AscI, NotI, SalI, and SfiI digests of intact genomic DNA separated on a contour-clamped homogeneous electric field pulsed-field gel electrophoresis system. An average genome size of 2.7 x 10(6) bp was calculated from 21 NotI, 37 SalI, or 27 SfiI fragments obtained by the digestions. The genomic map was assembled by using three different strategies: linking clone analysis, pulsed-field fragment hybridization, and individual clone hybridization to singly and doubly restriction-digested large DNA fragments. The relative positions of 21 genes or operons were determined, and these data suggest that the gene order is not highly conserved between Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002 and Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120.     

GH690合金热加工图及管材热挤压实验研究

采用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机进行高温等温压缩实验,研究了GH690合金在变形温度为950～1200℃、应变速率为0.001～10.000 s-1条件下的热变形行为,利用动态材料模型构建了GH690合金热加工图,并基于加工图进行GH690合金管材热挤压实验。结果表明:GH690合金有应力峰和动态再结晶软化的特征,在ε≥0.4时,流动应力趋于稳定状态;在热加工图中变形温度为1100～1150℃、应变速率为1.0～2.5 s-1时功率耗散效率达到0.34～0.39,该区域对应的工艺参数适合于进行GH690合金管材热挤压;在热加工图中变形温度为950～1000℃,应变速率在0.94～10.00 s-1之间的区域为不稳定变形区域,热加工时应该避开这一区域。     

超级奥氏体不锈钢的高温变形行为

 为了研究超级奥氏体不锈钢Cr20Ni24Mo6N钢的高温变形行为,采用Gleeble热模拟试验机进行了等温压缩试验,建立了合金的热加工图。结果表明,当变形温度为1 000～1 200 ℃时,Cr20Ni24Mo6N钢的流变曲线表现出典型的“加工硬化＋动态再结晶软化”特点;Cr20Ni24Mo6N钢的热激活能[Q]为678.656 kJ/mol。通过加工图与微观组织综合分析得出,超级奥氏体不锈钢Cr20Ni24Mo6N的合适热加工工艺为,应变速率10 s－1左右,应变量0.5～0.8,变形温度1 150～1 200 ℃。     

TA17钛合金热变形行为及加工图

为探索TA17钛合金热变形行为和变形特性,采用Gleeble-3800热模拟机开展温度为700~1 100℃、应变速率为0.1~40 s~(-1)、变形程度为60%的热压缩试验。基于Arrhenius模型构建TA17钛合金的本构方程,基于动态材料模型构建TA17钛合金的热加工图(ε=0.6),并结合显微组织分析对热加工图进行验证。结果表明:热加工图预测结果与组织分析相符,当温度低于750℃或者应变速率大于10 s~(-1)的区域为TA17钛合金的加工失稳区域,失稳区以外是安全加工区域,热加工性能最佳的区域是800℃、0.1 s~(-1)。     

316LN不锈钢管道热加工过程的加工图及可加工性

建立了316LN超低碳控氮不锈钢管道的热加工图,并确立了最适宜热加工的工艺范围。利用Gleeble-3500热模拟实验机进行热压缩实验,用以模拟316LN超低碳控氮不锈钢的热加工过程。实验的温度范围是1 173~1 473 K,实验的应变速率范围是0.001~1 s-1。利用热压缩模拟实验得到的真应力-真应变数据,分别绘制出了材料能量耗散效率图和材料失稳图,并将二者叠加绘制出了316LN超低碳控氮不锈钢的加工图。从绘制出的图形可以看出,当温度为1 375~1 450 K、应变速率为0.01~0.1 s-1时,该材料的能量耗散效率达到最大值41%,此时发生了明显的动态再结晶。因此,该区域被确定为316LN超低碳控氮不锈钢热加工的最佳工作范围。     

Hot workability analysis and processing parameters optimisation for 20CrMnTiH steel by combining processing map with microstructure

The processing map of 20CrMnTiH steel is developed by using the dynamic material model according to the hot compression experiments, performed on a Gleeble-3500 thermal simulator at the temperature range of 850–1150°C and the strain rate of 0.01–1?s^?1. Hot workability characteristics of 20CrMnTiH steel are analysed based on the developed processing map. The safe deformation regions with higher power dissipation efficiency η exhibit the dynamic recrystallisation (DRX) mechanism and show fine and homogeneous microstructure. The unstable regions with negative instability coefficient ξ occur at both lower temperature with all strain rates and at high temperature with high strain rate at the strain of 0.2. The area of instability gradually decreases with the increasing strain and only appears at lower temperature and higher strain rate when the strain is above 0.2. The unstable regions indicate the flow localisation by microstructure analysis. Combining with the developed processing map with DRX behaviour, the optimal values of hot processing parameters for 20CrMnTiH steel are obtained to achieve good hot workability and small grains sizes at the process parameters ranged at 1036–1070°C/0.1–1?s^?1 and 918–985°C/0.01–0.014?s^?1.     

基于热加工图的中碳钢加工性能分析

??Taking LZ50 steel as deformation material?? the stress- strain curves during hot compression was analyzed. The mathematical model of peak stress and strain?? critical stress and strain?? steady stress and strain as well as the stress and strain at which material exhibited maximum flow softening were established by liner regression method. The hot processing map of LZ50 steel under different strains was plotted to predict microstructure evolution behavior during forging process in order to guide production and processing. The results indicate that work hardening rate increases when temperature decreases or strain rate increases. The hot processing map of Murty criterion is optimum to predict the microstructure evolution of LZ50 steel during hot forming by comparing three different instability criterion??s hot processing maps??Prasad criterion?? Murty criterion and Poletti criterion??. The zone of high temperature and high strain rate hasn??t obvious microstructure defects?? so it??s ??false instability range??. The most optimum range for LZ50 steel deformation is zone of medium temperature and medium strain rate?? such as 1020?? and 0. 5s-1?? where the structure is homogeneous and the grain keeps equiaxed after deformation.     

Optimization of Hot Workability in Superaustenitic Stainless Steel 654SMO

Hot compression tests were conducted on a Gleeble-3800 machine in a temperature range of 950 to 1200 ℃ and a strain rate range of 0. 001 to 10 s-1 in order to study the hot deformation behaviour of superaustenitic stainless steel 654SMO. The results show that peak stress increases with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate, and the apparent activation energy of this alloy was determined to be about 494 kJ/mol. The constitutive equation which can be used to relate the peak stress to the absolute temperature and strain rate was obtained. The processing maps for hot working developed on the basis of flow stress data and the dynamic materials model were adopted to op- timize the hot workability. It is found that the features of the maps obtained in the strain range of 0.2 to 1.0 are fun- damentally similar, indicating that the strain does not have a substantial influence on processing map. The combina- tion of processing map and mierostructural observations indicates that the favorable hot deformation conditions are located in two domains of processing map. The first domain occurs in the temperature range of 980 to 1035 ℃ and strain rate range of 0. 001 to 0.01 s-1 with a peak efficiency of 55%. The second domain appears in the temperature range of 1 120 to 1 180 ℃ and strain rate range of 0.3 to 3 s-1 with peak efficiency of 35%. Compared to other stable domains, the specimens deformed in these two domains exhibit full dynamic recrystallization grains with finer and more uniform sizes. An instability domain occurs at temperatures below 1 100 ℃ and strain rate above 0.1 s-1 , and flow instability is manifested in the form of flow localization.     

稀土对T91耐热钢动态再结晶行为影响

采用Gleeble-1500热/力模拟试验机进行压缩试验,研究了不同变形条件下微量稀土对T91耐热钢动态再结晶行为的影响.分析绘制了稀土加入前后实验钢的真应力-真应变曲线、再结晶-温度-时间图、再结晶图及功率耗散图,并计算了高温下实验钢的再结晶激活能.在变形温度为850~1100℃,变形速率为0.004~10 s-1变形条件下,变形温度越高和变形速率越低,动态再结晶越容易发生.稀土加入会产生固溶强化,稀土元素与碳原子发生交互作用,且在晶界处或晶界附近偏聚,使变形抗力与峰值应变均增大,再结晶激活能由354.6 kJ·mol-1提高到397.2 kJ·mol-1.另外,稀土会显著推迟再结晶发生时间,扩大再结晶的时间间隔,推迟再结晶动力学过程.      

Hot Deformation Characteristics and Dynamic Recrystallization Mechanisms of a Newly Developed Austenitic Heat-Resistant Alloy

The hot deformation characteristics, microstructure evolution, and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) mechanism of the newly developed austenitic heat-resistant steel Fe–18Cr–10Ni–0.3Nb–2.5Cu were systematically investigated by thermal compression tests combined with microstructure characterizations. The activation energy (Q) map, Zener–Hollomon parameter (Z) map, and processing map were plotted according to the stress–strain curves to reveal the inherent connection between the three maps and the hot deformation characteristics of this alloy. The high η region in the processing map does not precisely correspond to the region where DRX developed. Nevertheless, the flow instability map accurately predicts the microstructure. The variation pattern of Z corresponded more closely to the hot deformation microstructure evolution than did the variation pattern of Q. The degree of DRX increases with decreasing Z. The optimal process parameters are 1000 °C/0.01 s⁻¹/0.8 and 1100 °C/10 s⁻¹/0.8 (temperature/strain rate/strain), and they result in complete DRX and a narrow range of Z values. The DRX mechanism at high strain rate is characterized by the combined enhancement of discontinuous DRX (DDRX), continuous DRX (CDRX), and twin-DRX (TDRX). The dominance of the particle-stimulated nucleation (PSN) mechanism at intermediate strain rate results in the formation of incompletely recrystallized microstructures with approximate orientation. Sufficient time at low strain rate promotes the development of DDRX and CDRX.

     

Intergranular fracture of gamma titanium aluminides under hot working conditions

A comparative study of the hot workability of a near gamma titanium aluminide alloy Ti-49.5Al-2.5Nb-1.1Mn in the cast and wrought conditions was performed. Tension tests conducted on coarse grain, cast material, and fine grain wrought material revealed a pronounced variation in both fracture/peak stress and ductility with temperature and strain rate. Brittle, intergranular fracture occurring at high strain rates was found to be controlled by wedge crack nucleation, whereas the ductile fracture observed at low strain rates was controlled by the growth of wedge cracks and cavities. Dynamic recrystallization was shown to be the main restorative mechanism to accommodate grain boundary sliding and thereby control the crack growth rates. The ductile-to-brittle (DB) transition was found to be determined by the critical values of a grain size-based stress intensity factor given by the product of the peak/fracture stress and the square root of grain size. A processing map for the near gamma titanium aluminides was constructed based on the comparative analysis of the hot tension and compression test results.     

中碳钢温变形微观组织演变

 利用Gleeble-3500热模拟试验机研究了不同变形温度（550、600、650、700 ℃）和不同变形速率（0.001、0.01、0.1、1、10 s－1）对热轧态中碳钢温变形过程中变形行为的影响,并结合热加工图探明了在细小晶粒铁素体基体上形成均匀分布细小渗碳体颗粒复相组织的最佳工艺窗口。结果表明,温变形过程中,会发生铁素体再结晶以及渗碳体片层动态球化行为,其微观组织演变对流变应力影响较大;根据绘制的热加工图,温变形的适宜温度区间为630～700 ℃,速率区间为0.30～10和0.001～0.007 s－1,在该工艺区间变形,初始组织转变为细小均匀铁素体基体上分布着细小粒状渗碳体的复相组织。     

新型微合金化C-Mn-Al高强度钢的热变形行为

通过Gleeble-1500热模拟单轴压缩试验,研究了一种含1.79% Al （质量分数）的以Al替代Si微合金化高强度钢在温度为900-1100℃、应变速率为0.01-30 s-1条件下的热变形行为.建立了考虑应变量对材料常数影响的双曲正弦本构方程,利用建立的本构方程预测的应力-应变曲线与实验值吻合良好,表明建立的本构方程可以对实验钢的流变应力给出相对准确的预测.建立了实验钢的加工图,根据加工图分析确定了实验钢的动态再结晶区为1000-1100℃和0.01-1 s-1.组织观察表明在动态再结晶区实验钢发生了动态再结晶,而失稳区对应的组织出现了变形集中带或“项链”组织.最后将建立的本构方程和加工图联合运用,为更全面地研究实验钢在不同变形条件下的热变形行为提供了方法.      

6069铝合金的热变形行为和加工图

采用Gleeble-1500热模拟实验机在温度为300～450℃,应变速率为0.01～10 s?1条件下对6069铝合金进行热压缩实验,研究该合金的热变形行为及热加工特征,建立热变形本构方程和加工图。结果表明,6069铝合金热变形过程中的流变行为可用双曲正弦模型来描述,在实验条件下的平均变形激活能为289.36 kJ/mol。真应变为0.7的加工图表明合金在高温变形时存在2个安全加工区域,即变形温度为300～350℃、应变速率为1～10 s?1的区域和变形温度为380～450℃、应变速率为0.01～0.3 s?1的区域。适合加工的条件是变形温度为350℃,应变速率0.01 s?1。     

Dynamic Recrystallization in Sintered Cobalt during High-Temperature Deformation

The constitutive flow behavior of sintered cobalt in the temperature range 873 to 1473 K (600 to 1200 °C) and at strain rates from 0.001 to 10 s⁻¹ has been studied using constant true strain rate hot compression tests. On the basis of these data, a processing map has been generated that depicts the variation of strain rate sensitivity with temperature and strain rate. The processing map reveals a domain of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) with an optimum condition of processing at 1273 K (1000 °C) and at 10⁻³ s⁻¹. When deformed within the domain, the stress-strain curves exhibit a single peak followed by flow softening, leading to steady-state behavior. In addition to this, a recently developed approach based on flow curve analysis is used to study the DRX kinetics, which is found to follow an Avrami-type relation.     

稀土Ce对18Cr-5Ni-4Cu-N奥氏体不锈钢热压缩性能的影响

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟机对加入质量分数0.0063％Ce的18Cr-5Ni-4Cu-N奥氏体不锈钢进行热压缩测试,测定变形温度为1273～1473 K和应变速率为0.01～10s-1时热变形的应力应变曲线,采用Zener-Hol-lomon参数法构建高温本构方程,计算能量耗散图,并且采用场发射扫描电镜对高...     

High-temperature deformation behaviour and microstructural evolution of low carbon steel based on processing map

The high-temperature deformation behaviours of low carbon steel QD08 were investigated by hot compression tests over temperatures from 1000 to 1200°C and strain rates from 0.1 to 10 s^?1. The processing map was obtained by superimposition of the power dissipation and the instability maps and the regions having the lowest strain rate sensitivity added for more clarification of low and high workability regions. The results show that the security domain mainly of hot deformation with a higher powder dissipation factor and maintain a smooth variation, by the metallographic observations, the grain refinement by DRX under the stable deformation conditions. On the basis of processing map and microstructure evolution, the optimal deformation processing parameters are the hot deformation temperature range from 1070 to 1100°C, and strain rates range from 5 to 10 s^?1.     

1Cr17Ni1双相不锈钢的热变形行为及其热加工图

 运用Gleeble-3800热模拟试验机研究了1Cr17Ni1马氏体-铁素体双相不锈钢在变形温度为950～1 150 ℃、应变速率为0.1～10 s－1条件下的热压缩变形行为。运用双曲正弦函数构建了本构方程,得到了表观激活能为391.586 kJ/mol,并基于动态材料模型绘制了1Cr17Ni1钢不同应变量下的热加工图。观察变形后的组织形貌得到较低温度下发生动态回复与动态再结晶,较高温度只发生动态回复,综合热加工图与变形后组织得到最佳热变形工艺：热加工温度范围为950～1 000 ℃、热加工变形速率范围为0.1～0.3和5～10 s－1。     

Three-Dimensional Large Deformation Finite-Element Analysis of Plate Anchors in Uniform Clay

Three-dimensional large deformation finite-element (FE) analyses were performed to investigate plate anchor capacity during vertical pullout. The remeshing and interpolation technique with small strain approach was expanded from two-dimensional to three-dimensional conditions and coupled with the FE software, ABAQUS. A modified recovery of equilibrium in patches technique was developed to map stresses after each remeshing. Continuous pullout of rectangular plate anchors was simulated and the large deformation results for strip, circular, and rectangular anchors were compared with model test data, small strain FE results, and plastic limit solutions. Interface conditions of no breakaway (bonded) and immediate breakaway (no tension) were considered at the anchor base. The effects of anchor roughness, aspect ratio, soil properties, and soil overburden pressure were investigated. It was found that the anchor roughness had minimal effect on anchor performance. For square and circular deep anchors under immediate breakaway conditions, the maximum uplift capacity increased with soil elastic modulus, which suggests that lower bound limit analysis and small strain FE analysis may overestimate the capacity. The soil beneath the anchor base separates from the anchor at a certain embedment depth near the mudline, once tensile stresses were generated. The ratio of separation depth to anchor width was found to increase linearly with the ratio of soil undrained shear strength to the product of soil effective unit weight and anchor width and was independent of the initial anchor embedment depth.