The effect of driving cycles and H2 production pathways on the lifecycle analysis of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle: A case study in South Korea

This study focuses on the simulation and analysis on the fuel economy of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, data collection and modeling to estimate greenhouse gas emission during its lifecycle. Since regenerative braking is a velocity related process, a car which is equipped with it can be significantly affected by the driving cycle. Therefore, the influence of five driving patterns on the fuel economy of a FCEV is investigated. Further prediction of life cycle emission is carried out by several hydrogen production pathways. The results indicate that the mileage of this FCEV for 1 complete charging can be extended by as much as 7% in fast shift driving mode with energy recovery of 30% during braking. The results also prove that hydrogen produced by natural gas in an on-site manner can reduce the lifecycle emission by more than 50%, comparing to that by Naphtha.     

A comprehensive review of energy management optimization strategies for fuel cell passenger vehicle

With the gradual maturity of fuel cell vehicle technology, it gives a better opportunity for the application of passenger vehicles. In this paper, the energy management optimization strategies of fuel cell passenger vehicle (FCPV) are summarized for the first time. Initially, in this review, the topological configurations of FCPV are classified systematically. The optimization objectives, energy consumption and fuel cell life, are proposed for FCPV. Then the energy management strategies (EMSs) are illustrated and analysed based on the optimization objectives above. In terms of the complex and changeable characteristics of FCPV driving conditions, the latest FCPV EMSs which depend on driving information prediction technologies are discussed and summarized. The purpose of this paper is providing references for the development of new generation FCPV energy management optimization strategies.     

The effects of driving patterns and PEM fuel cell degradation on the lifecycle assessment of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

This research paper mainly deals with the realistic simulation of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and the development of a lifecycle assessment (LCA) tool to calculate and compare the environmental impacts of hydrogen fuel cell passenger vehicles with conventional vehicles. Since fuel cell vehicles are equipped with regenerative braking, they have strong potential to recover an ample portion of the energy being wasted in the braking system. Thus, the driving cycle can significantly affect the performance of fuel cell vehicles. In order to investigate the effect of driving patterns, several driving patterns are considered, and both vehicle fuel economy and lifecycle emissions are calculated and compared. Fuel cell degradation, on the other hand, is another major problem fuel cell vehicles face. This is mainly caused by the starts/stops, acceleration/deceleration, membrane humidity variation and a high load of the engine. When the vehicle operates on various driving patterns, the fuel cell will degrade which eventually affects the fuel economy. The effect of fuel cell degradation is also investigated for these driving patterns, and the results are compared. The results showed that the highway driving cycle has the lowest total lifecycle emission compared to New York city driving cycle, the city of Surrey (CoS) driving cycle, and the UDDS driving cycles. The results also indicate that fuel cell degradation undesirably affected the average fuel economy of the vehicle for about 23%.     

The cost of fuel economy in the Indian passenger vehicle market

To investigate how fuel economy is valued in the Indian car market, we compute the cost to Indian consumers of purchasing a more fuel-efficient vehicle and compare it to the benefit of lower fuel costs over the life of the vehicle. We estimate hedonic price functions for four market segments (petrol hatchbacks, diesel hatchbacks, petrol sedans, and diesel sedans) to compute 95% confidence intervals for the marginal cost to the consumer for an increase in fuel economy. We find that the associated present value of fuel savings falls within the 95% confidence interval for most specifications, in all market segments, for the years 2002 through 2006. Thus, we fail to consistently reject the hypothesis that consumers appropriately value fuel economy.     

The possibility of an accidental scenario for marine transportation of fuel cell vehicle: Hydrogen releases from TPRD by radiant heat from lower deck

In case fires break out on the lower deck of a car carrier ship or a ferry, the fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) parked on the upper deck may be exposed to radiant heat from the lower deck. Assuming that the thermal pressure relief device (TPRD) of an FCV hydrogen cylinder is activated by the radiant heat without the presence of flames, hydrogen gas will be released by TPRD to form combustible air-fuel mixtures in the vicinity. To investigate the possibility of this accident scenario, the present study investigated the relationship between radiant heat and TPRD activation time and evaluated the possibility of radiant heat causing hydrogen releases by TPRD activation under the condition of deck temperature reaching the spontaneous ignition level of the tires and other automotive parts. It was found: a) the tires as well as polypropylene and other plastic parts underwent spontaneous ignition before TPRD was activated by radiant heat and b) when finally TPRD was activated, the hydrogen releases were rapidly burned by the flames of the tires and plastic parts on fire. Consequently it was concluded that the explosion of air-fuel mixtures assumed in the accident scenario does not occur in the real world.     

A fuel cell powered autonomous surface vehicle: The Eco-SWAMP project

Autonomous surface vehicles are becoming consolidated robotic tools for marine, coastal and inland surveys. Autonomous surface vehicles are usually equipped with electronic instruments to perform remotely controlled or autonomous geo-morphological, biological, chemical, physical analyses and data collection. Actually, well-established solutions provide battery power but the research focuses on introducing a fuel cell to decrease the environmental impact meanwhile increasing the cruising range. In this paper, the design of the Eco-SWAMP, a fuel cell powered autonomous surface vehicle, is presented starting from its battery-powered version, the SWAMP prototype. The experimental power consumption profile of the SWAMP during four missions is analysed to define the primary energy sources ratings of the Eco-SWAMP. After a commercial choice of primary sources, power management algorithms are designed and compared in MATLAB/Simulink environment by simulation results. The proposed procedure can be easily applied to any autonomous marine vehicle.     

New vehicle fuel economy in the UK: Impact of the recession and recent policies

Interests in vehicle fuel economy have increased in the past few years with the implementations of more stringent CAFE standard in USA and mandatory carbon emission standard in the EU. We seek to understand the effects of recent policies such as restructuring of Vehicle Excise Duties and EU standard on new vehicle fuel economy in the UK. In the past few years there have been substantial fluctuations in income and fuel prices, offering an interesting testing ground to understand their impact on the demand for fuel economy in vehicles. We use a monthly dataset to find that the emission standard is the largest driver for fuel economy improvements in recent years. Also, contrary to some recent findings in Europe and in UK, we find that income has an effect and that the recession had some role in improving the fuel economy. The effects of fuel prices were relatively small. Restructuring of the VED also improved new vehicle fuel economy in the UK, but the scrappage scheme had no significant effect. Results indicate that both supply and demand side policies are effective in improving fuel economy, although quantitatively the emission standard appears more effective due to its stringency. It is also important to consider the effects of income while devising demand side policies.     

Tourist preferences for fuel cell vehicle rental: going green with hydrogen on the island of Tenerife

Using a discrete choice experiment (DCE), a survey of international tourists on the island of Tenerife is conducted to examine preferences for fuel cell vehicle (FCV) rental while on vacation. Survey respondents were generally supportive of FCVs and willing to hire one as part of their trip but for most individuals this is contingent on an adequate fuel station infrastructure. A latent class model was used to identify three distinct groups; one of which potentially represent early adopters – they have a high willingness-to-pay (WTP) for green hydrogen and are more likely to accept a low number of fuel stations but it could be challenging to convince them to use FCVs if they are not run on green hydrogen.     

Successful pathway for locally driven fuel cell electric vehicle adoption: Early evidence from South Korea

South Korea is an outstanding pioneer of fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) technology, an industry that is fundamental to the hydrogen ecosystem. This study aims to explore possible pathways for the successful adoption of FCEV in the local region. By using the fuzzy-set quality comparative analysis (fs/QCA) method, we identify three auspicious pathways based on the 16 regional cases in Korea. We find that, first, a large number of hydrogen (H₂) stations will lead to successful FCEV adoption (H₂ STATION→FCEV). Second, the combination of high levels of greenhouse gases(GHGs) and the local government-driven future construction plans of H₂ stations can also be a remarkable pathway (GHGs1 PLAN→FCEV). Lastly, a combination of high levels of GHGs and subsidies can be another compelling pathway (GHGs1 SUBSIDIES→FCEV). This study provides early evidence of FCEVs adoption and can be of use to latecomer countries to the hydrogen economy.     

The impact of fuel cell vehicle deployment on road transport greenhouse gas emissions: The China case

Considerable attention has been paid to energy security and climate problems caused by road vehicle fleets. Fuel cell vehicles provide a new solution for reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, especially those from heavy-duty trucks. Although cost may become the key issue in fuel cell vehicle development, with technological improvements and cleaner pathways for hydrogen production, fuel cell vehicles will exhibit great potential of cost reduction. In accordance with the industrial plan in China, this study introduces five scenarios to evaluate the impact of fuel cell vehicles on the road vehicle fleet greenhouse gas emissions in China. Under the most optimistic scenario, greenhouse gas emissions generated by the whole fleet will decrease by 13.9% compared with the emissions in a scenario with no fuel cell vehicles, and heavy-duty truck greenhouse gas emissions will decrease by nearly one-fifth. Greenhouse gas emissions intensity of hydrogen production will play an essential role when fuel cell vehicles' fuel cycle greenhouse gas emissions are calculated; therefore, hydrogen production pathways will be critical in the future.     

The impact of the proposed reduction in the motor fuels excise tax in the United States

The analysis in this paper examines the impact of reducing the excise tax on gasoline and diesel fuel on the United States economy. The analytical approach used in the analysis consists of a computable general equilibrium model composed of fourteen producing sectors, fourteen consuming sectors, six household categories classified by income and a government. The effects of a 4·3 cents per gallon reduction in the excise tax on gasoline and diesel fuel on prices and quantities are examined. The results suggest, for example, a decrease in the tax would result in higher output by the producing sectors (by about $2·86 billion), a expansion in the consumption of goods and services (by about $3·48 billion), and an increase in welfare (by about $3·59 billion). The government would realize a decrease in revenue of about $2·37 billion. When subjected to a sensitivity analysis, the results are reasonably robust with regard to the assumption of the values of the substitution elasticities. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A semi-empirical method for electrically modeling of fuel cell: Executed on a direct methanol fuel cell

In this paper, a novel semi-empirical modeling method to mathematically derive a nonlinear equivalent circuit from a special group of impedance fuel cell models is proposed. As an example, a 5-cm² direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) was modeled by this method. The derived equivalent circuit is composed of lumped nonlinear resistors, capacitors and an inductor. The nonlinear circuit has an impedance equivalent to the target fuel cell in various operating conditions and provides a good approximation of the static and transient behaviors of the fuel cell. The equivalent circuit fuel cell model was validated by comparing its numerical simulation results with its polarization curve and the dynamic behavior of the target DMFC. These comparisons were performed while the DMFC was operating under square current pulses with different upper and low current levels.     

Sizing of a fuel cell electric vehicle: A pinch analysis-based approach

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells are considered as a promising alternative to mitigate the CO₂ emission in the transport sector. To achieve an efficient and cost-effective system, hybridisation of the energy storage system with a fuel cell is important. Efficient management of energy is the key in order to achieve an efficient and cost-effective configuration for fuel cell electric vehicle. Optimum sizing of the power source and energy storage system, which is capable of meeting the load requirement of the driving cycle is the key challenge for achieving efficient and cost-effective system. In this work, an alternative methodology based on the principles of pinch analysis is proposed, for sizing the energy storage system and the fuel cell for fuel cell-based electric vehicle, and validated for the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) class-3 driving cycle.     

New fuel consumption standards for Chinese passenger vehicles and their effects on reductions of oil use and CO2 emissions of the Chinese passenger vehicle fleet

A new fuel consumption standard for passenger vehicles in China, the so-called Phase 3 standard, was approved technically in 2009 and will take effect in 2012. This standard aims to introduce advanced energy-saving technologies into passenger vehicles and to reduce the average fuel consumption rate of Chinese new passenger vehicle fleet in 2015 to 7 L/100 km. The Phase 3 standard follows the evaluating system by specifying fuel consumption targets for sixteen individual mass-based classes. Different from compliance with the Phases 1 and 2 fuel consumption standards, compliance of the Phase 3 standard is based on corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) rates for individual automobile companies. A transition period from 2012 to 2014 is designed for manufacturers to gradually adjust their production plans and introduce fuel-efficient technologies. In this paper, we, the designers of the Phase 3 standard, present the design of the overall fuel consumption reduction target, technical feasibility, and policy implications of the Phase 3 standard. We also explore several enforcement approaches for the Phase 3 standard with financial penalties of non-compliance as a priority. Finally, we estimate the overall effect of the Phase 3 standard on oil savings and CO₂ emission reductions.     

Decision mechanism between fuel cell types: A case study for small aircraft

Research has focused on green energy alternatives that can be used instead of fossil fuels to reduce aviation-related emissions and achieve zero-emission targets. One of the most promising alternatives is hydrogen-based fuel cells. Determining the fuel cell type closest to the hydrogen side solution to the airplane emission problem will help guide the researchers working on this issue. Multi-criteria decision-making methods were used for the first time in applying fuel cells to aircraft. The study will pioneer the use of MCDM methods in determining the usability of fuel cells in other areas and vehicles. This study proposes a decision mechanism to evaluate the most suitable fuel cell type integrated into a normal class small aircraft hybrid powertrain. Accordingly, the decision problem was transformed into a hierarchical structure by determining five fuel cell alternatives and twelve criteria in consultation with expert decision-makers. The decision problem has been solved with the Analytic Hierarchy Process, one of the multi-criteria decision-making methods in accordance with its structure. The results showed that PEM fuel cells are best suited for integration into hybrid aircraft, with in power-related criteria such as Specific power, Power density, and Power capacity. Also, our results cast a new light on the properties of fuel cells to be considered for use in aircraft.     

A Kriging-based bi-objective constrained optimization method for fuel economy of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle

The Kriging-based single-objective optimization for expensive black-box problems has been preventing the engineering application. The main challenge is how to reduce time consumption and improve convergence accuracy. To this end, a Kriging-based bi-objective constrained optimization (KBCO) algorithm is proposed. For each cycle, KBCO firstly uses the sampled design points to build or consecutively update Kriging models of expensive objective and constraint functions. And then, the predictive objective, root mean square error (RMSE) and maximum feasible probability produced by Kriging models are used to construct two objectives, which will be optimized by the NSGA-II solver to generate the Pareto optimal solutions. Finally, the Pareto front data will be further screened to obtain new expensive-evaluation sampling points and append them to sample data. Several numerical tests and a fuel economy simulation case for hydrogen fuel cell vehicle verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the KBCO method.     

Disruptive innovations: The case for hydrogen fuel cells and battery electric vehicles

The investment of private money in technological innovation is driven by the expectation of successful market penetration. This decision to invest is less risky when the innovation represents gradual improvement of existing technologies. The term disruptive innovation is used to describe the opposite case, i.e. innovations that are so different that their establishment in the market causes a disruption to the pre-existing system. The existing literature on disruptive innovations provides us with historic case studies of successful market capture by new technologies, but this in itself is insufficient to clarify the chances of success for nascent technologies. This paper sets out to bring greater clarity to the characteristics of disruptive innovation in a way that informs the debate on the viability of emerging technologies. Whilst existing definitions are based on technologies that were successful, this paper proposes a three part criteria to define candidate disruptive technologies: disruption should relate to manufacturers and/or infrastructure (the two often being inter-related), whilst innovation must provide more than the equivalence of service to the end-user. A review of seven historical case studies of successful disruptive technologies reveals seven characteristics of candidate disruptive technologies at the stage of niche market penetration. Examining battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles against these seven characteristics, shows that both candidate disruptive technologies share the same challenges as those identified in the successful historic case studies and also helps to identify potential pathways to greater market penetration in the future for these technologies.     

The economics of nuclear fuel reprocessing : A case study of the windscale THORP plant

The comparative economics of the thermal oxide reprocessing plant are examined within the context of recent public pronouncements of nuclear power development in the UK to the year 2000, using ‘best estimates’ of available costings. Two principal scenarios for utilizing the fuel recovered from reprocessing are considered; recycle in thermal reactors and storage for use as fuel for fast reactor development and commercialization. Although the financial viability of reprocessing is proven in each case, it is argued that this conclusion can easily be invalidated given the extensive degree of inconsistency in the published cost estimates of many ‘back end’ fuel cycle operations.     

South Korea's national pursuit for fuel cell electric vehicle development: The role of government R&D programs over 30 years (1989–2021)

This paper explains the role of the Korean government's National R&D Program over three decades for fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) development. The R&D programs had started far before FCEV was considered feasible. We call this as a national pursuit, since the R&D programs has been participated by not only car manufacturers but also various research institutions, including universities, in Korea's national innovation system. The Korean government has implemented a series of National R&D Programs throughout many stages, from selection of technology, building infrastructure and legislations, demonstration, and subsidizing mass-produced FCEVs. The authors analyzed all the government R&D programs from 1989 to 2021 to show the evolutionary changes in contexts and contents of the programs that have reflected varying expectations, government's industrial strategy, and the maturity of technologies through periods. This paper claims that Korea's FCEV development has been regarded as a long-run national industrial strategy, and the development has been persistently pursued in a national innovation systemic manner, such as combining public R&D sector with industries and strong institutional and organizational supports by government.     

The computer-aided analysis for the driving stability of a plug-in fuel cell vehicle using a proton exchange membrane fuel cell

In order to analyze the driving stability of a plug-in fuel cell vehicle (PFCV), a computer-aided simulator for PFCVs has been developed. PFCVs have been introduced around the world to achieve early commercialization of an eco-friendly and highly efficient fuel cell vehicle. The plug-in option, which allows the battery to be recharged from the electricity grid, enables a reduction in size of the fuel cell system (FCS) and an improvement of its durability. As such, the existing limitations of the fuel cell - such as its high cost, poor durability, and the insufficient hydrogen infrastructure – can be overcome. During the design phase of PFCV development, simulation-based driving stability test is necessary to determine the sizes of the electric engine of the FCS and the battery. The developed simulator is very useful for analyzing the driving stability of the PFCV with respect to the capacities of the FCS and battery. The simulation results are in fact very close to those obtained from a real system, since the estimation accuracy of PFCV component models used in this simulator, such as the fuel cell stack, battery, electric vehicle, and the other balance of plants (BOPs), are verified by the experiments, and the simulator uses the newly-proposed power distribution control logic and the pre-confirmed real driving schedule. Using these results, we can study which one will be the best in terms of driving stability.