天然气汽车燃料加注的几个问题

在天然气汽车(NGVs)的市场推广过程中,以加气站为主的基础设施的建设是关系到天然气汽车发展的关键环节之一。文章讨论了一些会对天然气加气站的运行造成影响的问题,包括天然气的预处理问题、充气系统充气间歇问题以及高压充气时可能出现的不良节流效应和它们的处理方法。同时从投资与运营角度,对我国不同地区的天然气资源及其所需工艺、不同的加气站类型及其适用对象,进行了综合分析。     

Developing an infrastructure for hydrogen vehicles: a Southern California case study

We have examined the technical feasibility and economics of developing a hydrogen vehicle refueling infrastructure for a specific area where zero emission vehicles are being considered, Southern California. Potential hydrogen demands for zero emission vehicles are estimated. We then assess in detail several near term possibilities for producing and delivering gaseous hydrogen transportation fuel including: (1) hydrogen produced from natural gas in a large, centralized steam reforming plant, and truck delivered as a liquid to refueling stations; (2) hydrogen produced in a large, centralized steam reforming plant, and delivered via small scale hydrogen gas pipeline to refueling stations; (3) by-product hydrogen from chemical industry sources; (4) hydrogen produced at the refueling station via small scale steam reforming of natural gas; and (5) hydrogen produced via small scale electrolysis at the refueling station. The capital cost of infrastructure and the delivered cost of hydrogen are estimated for each hydrogen supply option. Hydrogen is compared to other fuels for fuel cell vehicles (methanol, gasoline) in terms of vehicle cost, infrastructure cost and lifecycle cost of transportation. Finally, we discuss possible scenarios for introducing hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cell vehicles.     

LNG (liquefied natural gas): A necessary part in China's future energy infrastructure

This paper presents an overview of the LNG industry in China, covering LNG plants, receiving terminals, transportation, and applications. Small and medium scale LNG plants with different liquefaction processes have already been built or are being built. China's first two LNG receiving terminals have been put into operation in Guangdong and Fujian, another one is being built in Shanghai, and more are being planned. China is now able to manufacture LNG road tanks and containers. The construction of the first two LNG carriers has been completed. LNG satellite stations have been built, and LNG vehicles have been manufactured. LNG related regulations and standards are being established. The prospects of LNG in China are also discussed in this paper. Interesting topics such as small-scale liquefiers, LNG cold energy utilization, coal bed methane liquefaction, LNG plant on board (FPSO – floating production, storage, and off-loading), and LNG price are introduced and analyzed. To meet the increasing demand for natural gas, China needs to build about 10 large LNG receiving terminals, and to import LNG at the level of more than 20 bcm (billion cubic metre) per year by 2020.     

Understanding attitudes of hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle adopters in Japan

As of January 2021, Japan had the world's largest hydrogen station network with merely 4600 hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles (HFCVs) on roads, as compared to the 9000 HFCVs in the US, with only one-third of the hydrogen refueling stations in Japan. To understand behavioral differences among Japanese adopters, we administered a survey, in cooperation with public and private sector stakeholders, involving 89 private HFCV adopters in the Aichi Prefectural region, which hosts the largest number of HFCVs and refueling stations in Japan. Results suggest that HFCV adopters have a higher socioeconomic status than non-adopters, are mostly male in their 50s and above, and have a higher interest in new vehicle fuel technology. HFCV adopters who leased and bought vehicles were similar in terms of socioeconomic status, with differences in attitudes toward governmental incentives. The lack of refueling stations and station business hours restrict HFCV adopters from continuing with this fuel technology.     

A parametric analysis of future ethanol use in the light-duty transportation sector: Can the US meet its Renewable Fuel Standard goals without an enforcement mechanism?

The modified Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) prescribes a volume of biofuels to be used in the United States transportation sector each year through 2022. As the dominant component of the transportation sector, we consider the feasibility of the light-duty vehicle (LDV) parc to provide enough demand for biofuels to satisfy RFS2. Sensitivity studies show that the fuel price differential between gasoline and ethanol blendstocks, such as E85, is the principal factor in LDV biofuel consumption. The numbers of flex fuel vehicles and biofuel refueling stations will grow given a favorable price differential. However, unless the feedstock price differential becomes extreme (biomass prices below $100 per dry ton and oil prices above $215 per barrel), which deviates from historical price trends, LDV parc biofuel consumption will fall short of the RFS2 mandate without an enforcement mechanism. Additionally, such commodity prices might increase biofuel consumption in the short-term, but discourage use of biofuels in the long-term as other technologies that do not rely on any gasoline blendstock may be preferable. Finally, the RFS2 program goals of reducing fossil fuel consumption and transportation greenhouse gas emissions could be achieved through other pathways, such as notable improvements in conventional vehicle efficiency.     

天然气汽车的发展研究

综合分析了天然气汽车（CNGV）的改装技术，评价了天然气汽车改装后的工作性能，总结了改装后存在的主要技术问题及运行的经济效益。     

Addition of hydrogen refueling for fuel cell bus fleet to existing natural gas stations: A case study in Wuhan,China

Hydrogen refueling is an essential infrastructure for fuel cell vehicles, and currently, it appears to be a critical service needed to initiate the highly anticipated hydrogen economy in China. A practical selecting procedure of adding hydrogen refueling service to existing natural gas (NG) stations is proposed in this study. A case study in Wuhan, China, is established to assess the feasibility and future planning. The demand for hydrogen fuel and initial supply chain of hydrogen in Wuhan are estimated based on the deployment objective of fuel cell buses. The existing NG stations are evaluated based on 300 kg/day to determine whether they meet the hydrogen safety requirement using Google map or field investigation. The safety space requirement of the hydrogen refueling area on existing NG station is determined as 25.9 × 27.1 m². The optimal hydrogen refueling plan for fuel cell buses is calculated with multi‐objective analysis in economic, environmental, and safety aspects from the view of the hydrogen refueling supply chain. It is shown that adding hydrogen refueling stations to existing NG stations is feasible in technology, economics, regulation, and operation considerations. This study provides guidelines for building the hydrogen infrastructure for fuel cell buses at their early stage of commercial operation.     

Turn of the century refueling: A review of innovations in early gasoline refueling methods and analogies for hydrogen

During the first decades of the 20th century, a variety of gasoline refueling methods supported early US gasoline vehicles and successfully alleviated consumer concerns over refueling availability. The refueling methods employed included cans, barrels, home refueling outfits, parking garage refueling facilities, mobile stations, hand carts and curb pumps. Only after robust markets for gasoline vehicles had been firmly established did the gasoline service station become the dominant refueling method. The present study reviews this history and draws analogies with current and future efforts to introduce hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles. These comparisons hold no predictive power; however, there is heuristic value in an historical review of the first successful and large-scale introduction of a vehicle fuel. From an energy policy perspective, these comparisons reinforce the importance of a long-term and portfolio approach to support for technology development and innovation.     

Reduction potentials of energy demand and GHG emissions in China's road transport sector

Rapid growth of road vehicles, private vehicles in particular, has resulted in continuing growth in China's oil demand and imports, which has been widely accepted as a major factor effecting future oil availability and prices, and a major contributor to China's GHG emission increase. This paper is intended to analyze the future trends of energy demand and GHG emissions in China's road transport sector and to assess the effectiveness of possible reduction measures. A detailed model has been developed to derive a reliable historical trend of energy demand and GHG emissions in China's road transport sector between 2000 and 2005 and to project future trends. Two scenarios have been designed to describe the future strategies relating to the development of China's road transport sector. The ‘Business as Usual’ scenario is used as a baseline reference scenario, in which the government is assumed to do nothing to influence the long-term trends of road transport energy demand. The ‘Best Case’ scenario is considered to be the most optimized case where a series of available reduction measures such as private vehicle control, fuel economy regulation, promoting diesel and gas vehicles, fuel tax and biofuel promotion, are assumed to be implemented. Energy demand and GHG emissions in China's road transport sector up to 2030 are estimated in these two scenarios. The total reduction potentials in the ‘Best Case’ scenario and the relative reduction potentials of each measure have been estimated.     

Identifying and addressing barriers for the sustainable development of natural gas as automotive fuel

In recognition of the risks associated with climate change, governments around the world have tried to develop and define policies to address greenhouse gas emissions with transport recognized as one of major sources of greenhouse gases and air pollution. Apart from climate change, there is another side to this coin, and that is the risks surrounding energy security and future oil supplies. Vehicle manufacturers are increasingly recognizing their role in contributing to the goal of decarbonizing the economy and reduce dependence on oil. Out of available alternate fuels compressed natural gas (CNG) is the one which is meeting the maximum needs of countries worldwide, who want to switch over to alternate fuels. However, despite the fact that CNG are often seen as a panacea by policy-makers, there are a number of barriers to their widespread market penetration and diffusion. This study aims to identify an approach to strategic framework for addressing the barriers to widespread adoption of compressed natural gas as transportation fuel. Besides assessing the barriers to natural gas vehicles, the study attempts to identify how they can affect various stakeholders. The paper systematically examines natural gas vehicles (NGVs) adoption patterns and the evolution of pertinent market structures throughout the world but majorly concentrated on eleven countries:, China, Iran, Pakistan, Argentina, India, Brazil, Italy, United States, Germany, Sweden and South Korea. The underlying paper set out an objective of presentation of the framework for supporting policy makers in aspects including; identifying and assessing qualitative aspects of the barriers and consequently defining measures for their resolutions.     

A solution to renewable hydrogen economy for fuel cell buses – A case study for Zhangjiakou in North China

Fuel cell vehicles fueled with renewable hydrogen is recognized as a life-cycle carbon-free option for the transport sector, however, the profitability of the H₂ pathway becomes a key issue for the FCV commercialization. By analyzing the actual data from the Zhangjiakou fuel cell transit bus project, this research reveals it is economically feasible to commercialize FCV in areas with abundant renewable resources. Low electricity for water electrolysis, localization of H₂ supply, and curtailed end price of H₂ refueling effectively reduce the hydrogen production, delivery and refueling cost, and render a chance for the profitability of refueling stations. After the fulfillment of the intense deployment of both vehicles and hydrogen stations for the 2022 Winter Olympics, the H₂ pathway starts to make a profit thereafter. The practices in the Zhangjiakou FCB project offer a solution to the hydrogen economy, which helps to break the chicken-egg dilemma of vehicles and hydrogen infrastructure.     

Carbon charges and natural gas use in China

Substitution of natural gas for coal in China's power sector could significantly reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, but gas-fired power is generally more costly than coal-fired power in China today. This paper explores how carbon charges and carbon sequestration technology might tip the balance in favour of gas. The costs of electricity from new coal-fired and gas-fired power plants in China are compared under various assumptions about fuel costs, exchange rates, carbon dioxide charges, and application of carbon sequestration technology. Under average cost conditions today, gas-fired power is roughly two-thirds more costly than coal-fired power. But with a charge of $20/tonne of carbon dioxide, the costs of gas- and coal-fired power would typically be about equal. Over the longer term, carbon sequestration technology could be economical with a carbon dioxide charge of $22/tonne or more under typical cost conditions, but gas with sequestration would not have a clear cost advantage over coal with sequestration unless the charge exceeded $35/tonne.     

The co-evolution of alternative fuel infrastructure and vehicles: A study of the experience of Argentina with compressed natural gas

In a quest for strategic and environmental benefits, the developed countries have been trying for many years to increase the share of alternative fuels in their transportation fuel mixes. They have met very little success though. In this paper, we examine the experience of Argentina with compressed natural gas. We conducted interviews with a wide range of stakeholders and analyzed econometrically data collected in Argentina to investigate the factors, economic, political, and others that determined the high rate of adoption of this fuel. A central objective of this research was to identify lessons that could be useful to developed countries in their efforts to deploy alternative fuel vehicles. We find that fuel price regulation was a significant determinant of the adoption of compressed natural gas, while, contrary to expectations, government financing of refueling infrastructure was minimal.     

An empirical analysis on the adoption of alternative fuel vehicles: The case of natural gas vehicles

The adoption of alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) has been regarded as one of the most important strategies to address the issues of energy dependence, air quality, and, more recently, climate change. Despite decades of effort, we still face daunting challenges to promote wider acceptance of AFVs by the general public. More empirical analyses are needed to understand the technology adoption process associated with different market structures, the effectiveness of regulations and incentives, and the density of infrastructure adequate to reach sustainable commercial application. This paper compares the adoption of natural gas vehicles (NGVs) in eight countries: Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Italy, New Zealand, Pakistan, and the US. It examines the major policies aimed at promoting the use of NGVs, instruments for implementing those policies and targeting likely stakeholders, and a range of factors that influence the adoption of NGVs. The findings in this paper should be applicable to other AFVs.     

Price and expenditure elasticities of residential energy demand during urbanization: An empirical analysis based on the household-level survey data in China

Urbanization, one of the most obvious characteristics of economic growth in China, has an apparent “lock-in effect” on residential energy consumption pattern. It is expected that residential sector would become a major force that drives China's energy consumption after urbanization process. We estimate price and expenditure elasticities of residential energy demand using data from China's Residential Energy Consumption Survey (CRECS) that covers households at different income levels and from different regional and social groups. Empirical results from the Almost Ideal Demand System model are in accordance with the basic expectations: the demands for electricity, natural gas and transport fuels are inelastic in the residential sector due to the unreasonable pricing mechanism. We further investigate the sensitivities of different income groups to prices of the three types of energy. Policy simulations indicate that rationalizing energy pricing mechanism is an important guarantee for energy sustainable development during urbanization. Finally, we put forward suggestions on energy pricing reform in the residential sector based on characteristics of China's undergoing urbanization process and the current energy consumption situations.     

Lifecycle analysis of different urban transport options for Bangladesh

Once again, sustained high oil prices are forcing policy makers in oil importing countries to consider alternatives to oil products as transportation fuels. Unlike in the past, advancements in technology, relative success of some experiments and increased familiarity among and acceptance by the public of some alternatives indicate a higher likelihood of success. In particular, natural gas offers a couple of the best options as compressed natural gas (CNG) and chemical conversion of natural gas into diesel (gas-to-liquids, GTL). These options are likely to be most attractive in countries that have cheap access to natural gas. We compare lifetime costs of several individual transportation options for Bangladesh, an oil importer with natural gas reserves. The results are then used to inform the natural gas policy debate in the country. Assuming a natural gas price of $1.5 per million Btu, both the CNG and GTL options are competitive with conventional gasoline/diesel cars if the oil price stays higher than $35–40 per barrel. If natural gas price increases after new upstream developments, CNG becomes less attractive while GTL remains competitive up to $2.5 if capital costs of GTL facilities decline as expected. Under a government policy push (lower discounting), the breakeven price of oil falls to $30–35 per barrel.     

我国天然气价格改革浅析

我国现行的以成本加成法为基础的天然气定价机制使天然气价格偏低,从而影响了天然气的进口,造成终端消费市场的过度发展,不利于天然气企业进行成本管理,天然气定价机制改革已迫在眉睫。国外天然气价格成功改革的经验为我国提供了借鉴,但俄罗斯模式和日韩模式都不适合于中国。美国、加拿大、英国等国家天然气定价机制都经历了3个阶段,即传统固定价格阶段、天然气价值定价阶段、竞争性市场形成阶段。我国正处于天然气价格改革的第一阶段末期,应参考美国、加拿大等国的经验改革现有的天然气定价机制,建立与竞争性能源价格挂钩的定价方式,按照热值当量法计算天然气与其他竞争能源的比价关系;最终目标应是建立竞争性的市场,天然气价格由市场竞争形成。建议天然气下游利用加权定价法计算天然气终端价格,中游利用"两部制"法制定管输费,上游利用净回值法制定出厂价。同时,应制定天然气产业链一体化协调发展的相关政策,建立并完善天然气监管机构,及时处理天然气上中下游利益分配问题,制定高效的天然气价格听证会制度。     

Comparison of well-to-wheels energy use and emissions of a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle relative to a conventional gasoline-powered internal combustion engine vehicle

The operation of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs) is more efficient than that of gasoline conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), and produces zero tailpipe pollutant emissions. However, the production, transportation, and refueling of hydrogen are more energy- and emissions-intensive compared to gasoline. A well-to-wheels (WTW) energy use and emissions analysis was conducted to compare a HFCEV (Toyota Mirai) with a gasoline conventional ICEV (Mazda 3). Two sets of specific fuel consumption data were used for each vehicle: (1) fuel consumption derived from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) window-sticker fuel economy figure, and (2) weight-averaged fuel consumption based on physical vehicle testing with a chassis dynamometer on EPA's five standard driving cycles. The WTW results show that a HFCEV, even fueled by hydrogen from a fossil-based production pathway (via steam methane reforming of natural gas), uses 5%–33% less WTW fossil energy and has 15%–45% lower WTW greenhouse gas emissions compared to a gasoline conventional ICEV. The WTW results are sensitive to the source of electricity used for hydrogen compression or liquefaction.     

Current scenario and outlook for biogas and natural gas businesses in the mobility sector in Brazil

Carbon neutral solutions are demanded to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the mobility sector. In Brazil, alongside bioethanol, natural gas and biogas are potential solutions towards a low carbon future. While Brazilian natural gas market growth has increased due to recent offshore discoveries, its biogas potential is one of the largest in the world. Nevertheless, Brazil has currently no production of stock automobile by either gaseous fuel, despite of having the largest world flex fuel fleet (gasoline-ethanol). Therefore, the present research aims at evaluating critical points linked to the natural gas and biomethane businesses expansion in Brazil. The current scenario and outlook for energy usage is presented. RenovaBio, the recent governmental program to promote biofuels, is evaluated from the gas business point of view. And finally, the main incentive policies and regulations, price formation and limitations for the grid expansion are discussed. It is shown that biogas competitiveness as a vehicular fuel is limited mainly for the additional costs of its upgrading process to biomethane. Regarding the natural gas usage, the main limiting factor is the monopoly of production and transport in Brazil as it does not allow free competition and increases the end consumer price. Moreover, the current pipeline grid extension prioritizes the most industrialized regions and does not reach all potential natural gas users. New governmental policies and incentives were proven necessary to improve the economic viability and hence to fully benefit from the potential of both energy sources to reduce carbon footprint.     

长三角地区加氢站发展现状、障碍分析及对策建议

目的  为促进我国实现碳达峰、碳中和目标,深入推进生产和消费革命,构建清洁低碳、安全高效的能源体系,发展氢能产业有着重要意义。加速发展加氢站是实现氢能源全链条的关键,是实现氢能产业健康、迅速发展的重要保障。由于长三角地区石化和化工企业氢能消费规模大,氢燃料电池汽车等发展迅速,促进加氢站发展及网络建设是氢能推广的重中之重。 方法  通过文献研究法、个案研究法、调查研究法、经济性测算等研究方法分析长三角地区加氢站建站审批流程、政策环境等现状,识别制约长三角地区加氢站建设发展的障碍。 结果  由于氢的能源属性缺乏法律支撑,建设标准缺乏指导性,多部门协作机制不健全等因素制约了加氢站的建设,阻碍了氢能产业的发展。 结论  应健全氢能有关法律法规,明确氢能“危化品”与“能源”的边界条件,完善加氢站建设标准及审批流程,集中力量攻关核心技术,增加财政补贴扶持力度,加速推广燃料电池汽车,促进氢能产业发展。