Uncertainty and intrusiveness of three-layer wire-mesh sensor

A wire-mesh sensor (WMS) has been applied to estimate the bubble velocity of an air-water bubbly flow in a vertical channel with a square cross-section. The WMS provides instantaneous cross-sectional gas fraction distributions which are measured by detecting the local electrical conductivity between two electrode wires crossing each other at right angles. The applied WMS has three planes of wire grids separated by 1.5 mm in the axial direction. The wires of the central grid are used as transmitter electrodes, while the wires of the two external grids are connected to the receiver inputs of the electronic unit. In this way, the sensor has two measuring planes, located between the transmitter grid and both receiver planes. Individual bubble diameters are calculated from the measured gas fraction data by using a bubble identification algorithm, and the bubble velocity is evaluated by cross-correlating the instantaneous gas fraction profiles. In case of WMS measurements, the intrusive effects caused by the wires cannot be neglected. In this study, the effect of the intrusive WMS on the bubble velocity was studied by high speed camera (HSC) observation. Bubble parameters were extracted from both WMS and HSC data. A comparison of bubble size and velocity was carried out for each bubble individually. It was found that bubbles are strongly decelerated when they collide with the wire grids in case of low liquid velocities. The effect decreases with growing liquid velocity and finally turns into a slight acceleration which corresponds to the degree of the cross-section obstruction by the wires.     

Applications of wire-mesh sensors in multiphase flows

This article offers an overview of the applications of the wire-mesh sensor (WMS) in different environments. It presents a critical review of the literature, with relevant and recent implementations, remarkably in gas–liquid and liquid–liquid flow, comparing it with other techniques. In addition, it is shown how the sensor is adapted to each application and its different geometries, showing its flexibility. The advantages and disadvantages of the use of the WMS are analyzed. This technique can provide information about local, chordal, cross-section or in-situ volume profiles/distributions of phase fraction; velocities, size and distributions of droplets/bubbles; frequency of periodic structures; interfacial area; film thickness; flow regimes and thermal distribution.     

Performance evaluation of conductivity wire-mesh sensors in vertical channels

This article presents a comprehensive and critical discussion of available literature on conductivity wire–mesh tomography as well as some complementary original analysis. Wire-mesh tomographs were first classified into different categories, depending on their principles of operation, and then the discussion was focused on the most commonly used type, namely, the wire–mesh sensor (WMS) in vertical channel flows. The main applications of WMS were outlined and the properties that can be determined from WMS signals were identified, together with the corresponding procedures. WMS performance and the factors that affect this performance were evaluated in detail using results of previous investigations as well as new analysis and data. The principles of operation and main applications of global wire–mesh tomographs were then described. This article finally presents several examples of wire–mesh tomography applications in multicomponent flows.     

Micro wire-mesh sensor for two-phase flow measurement in a rectangular narrow channel

A micro wire-mesh sensor (μWMS) based on an electrical conductivity measurement between electrodes installed on the walls has been developed for gas–liquid two-phase flow measurements in a narrow rectangular channel. This measuring method applies a principle of conventional wire-mesh tomography, which can measure the instantaneous void fraction distributions in the cross-section of the relatively large flow channel. In two-phase flow measurement using μWMS the void fraction distributions in the narrow channel were obtained by the measured conductivities between electrodes arranged on each wall. Therefore, the gas phase structures and the bubble behaviors can be investigated in the flow channel with narrow gap. In the present paper, a μWMS for the air–water flow between parallel flat plates with a gap of 3 mm was developed and simultaneous measurements with a high speed video camera were conducted to compare the measured results in bubbly flow.     

Comparison between wire-mesh sensor and ultra-fast X-ray tomograph for an air–water flow in a vertical pipe

A comparison between ultra-fast X-ray CT and a wire-mesh sensor is presented. The measurements were carried out in a vertical pipe of 42 mm inner diameter, which was supplied with an air–water mixture. Both gas and liquid superficial velocities were varied. The X-ray CT delivered 263 frames per second, while the wire-mesh sensor was operated at a frequency four times higher. Two different gas injectors were used: four orifices of 5 mm diameter for creating large bubbles and gas plugs and a sintered plate with a pore size of 100 μm for generating a bubbly flow. It was found that the wire-mesh sensor has a significantly higher resolution than the X-ray CT. Small bubbles, which are clearly shown by the wire-mesh sensor, cannot be found in the CT images, because they cross the measuring plane before a complete scan can be performed. This causes artifacts in the reconstructed images, instead. Furthermore, there are large deviations between the quantitative information contained in the reconstructed tomographic 2D distributions and the gas fractions measured by the sensor, while the agreement is very good when the gas fraction is obtained by a direct evaluation of the X-ray attenuation along the available through-transmission chords of the tomography set-up. This shows that there is still potential for an improvement of the image reconstruction method. Concerning the wire-mesh sensor it was found that the gas fraction inside large bubbles is slightly underestimated. Furthermore, a significant distortion of large Taylor bubbles by the sensor was found for small liquid velocities up to 0.24 m/s. This effect vanished with growing superficial water velocity.     

Pulverized coal flow metering on a full-scale power plant using electrostatic sensor arrays

On-line continuous monitoring of pulverized coal in fuel injection pipes will allow power plant operators to optimize fuel conveying conditions and ultimately to achieve higher combustion efficiency and lower atmospheric emissions. This paper presents the design, implementation and trials of a prototype instrumentation system for the on-line measurement of pulverized coal on a full-scale power plant. An array of three identical arc-shaped electrostatic electrodes is housed in a sensing head to derive particle flow signals. Pulverized coal flow parameters such as velocity, mass flow rate and fuel distribution among the injection pipes from the same pulverizing mill are obtained by processing the signals and fusing the resulting measurements. On-plant demonstration trials on 560 mm bore pneumatic conveying pipes feeding a 600 MW boiler were undertaken following system evaluation tests on a 50 mm bore laboratory test rig. Experimental results demonstrate that reliable monitoring of pulverized coal flow parameters is achieved and that the system is able to track both transient and long-term fluctuations of pulverized coal flow in fuel injection pipes under real power plant conditions.     

The monitoring of the two phase flow-annular flow type regime using microwave sensor technique

Accurate monitoring of a multiphase fluid flow in a dynamic pipeline is a significant problem in the oil industry. For efficient management of oil field wells, a real-time online system with capabilities to monitor fractions of oil, gas and water in oil production pipelines is required. These parameters determine the oil quality and inform how much water, oil and gas is produced from oil wells. This paper reports on the development of a novel non-intrusive sensor, which is based on electromagnetic waves cavity resonator. It determines and monitors the percentage volumes of each of the two phases (oil and gas) in the pipeline using the resonant frequencies shifts that occur within the resonator. A laboratory prototype version of the sensor system was constructed and tested. Experimental results were in good correlation with theoretical model that was simulated with High Frequency Structure Simulation (HFSS) software. Reported system will form the basis for the advanced real-time multiphase fluid composition monitoring platform.     

Computational modeling of bubbly flows in differential pressure flow meters

This paper addresses bubbly flow modeling within Venturi tubes and nozzles using the two-fluid model. The effects of non-drag forces as virtual mass and the so-called “transversal forces” such as lift and wall lubrication are investigated in the context of the two-fluid model. As expected, the transversal forces have an important influence on void distribution as long as the virtual mass affects the pressure drop along the contraction, which is the main parameter for the flow rate measurement. Models for the virtual mass and lift forces were implemented via user routines in commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software, as the models embedded within these packages, specifically for virtual mass, were found not to be adequate for the purpose of this study. The models are validated against results from the literature and pressure drop measurements along a Venturi tube, developed in this work. Additionally, some experimental visualizations were used to make a qualitative comparison with predicted void distribution.     

一种新型硅压阻式流速流向传感器的设计

本文设计了一种基于体微机械加工技术、SU-8-光刻胶工艺和压阻检测的新型硅压阻式流速流向传感器.该传感器由立柱和支撑梁构成,这种结构将流体的流速流向信息转化为立柱的倾斜和相应的梁的变形,通过4根正交梁端部的压阻应变计来测量梁的变形.通过测量压电电阻的阻值变化就可以得到流体的流速和流向.利用惠斯通电桥来获得正弦电压输出.理论分析了器件的结构变形和电压输出,并用有限元方法进行了验证.为该传感器设计了一套基于键合技术的体微机械加工工艺.     

热膜式空气质量流量传感器块联模型结构辨识

同时利用稳态和动态校准数据,辨识了基于Hammerstein模型的热膜式空气质量流量(MAF)传感器的模型结构.在用多项式逼近静态非线性特性的基础上,动态线性环节分别选取带外生输入的自回归(ARX)模型、输出误差(OE)模型和Box-Jenkins(BJ)模型结构,采用交叉准则法进行参数估计和阶次选择,通过残差分析和仿真比较对模型进行检验.结果表明,用估计数据选择阶次时,最终预报误差(FPE)准则与最终输出误差(FOE)准则具有良好的一致性,基于预测误差法的2阶OE模型和BJ模型均可用于热膜式空气质量流量传感器Hammerstein模型动态线性环节的建模.     

气固两相流流速测量系统的传感器设计

介绍一种用于测量气固两相流流速的传感器,阐述了其工作原理,对传感器的结构和随机噪声提取电路进行设计和分析,试验证明该传感器能够检测微弱的随机流动信号。     

Analytical investigation of an inductive flow sensor with arc-shaped electrodes for water velocity measurement in two-phase flows

An inductive flow sensor with spot-shaped electrodes (IFS-SE) is sensitive to the shape of the flow profile and is restricted to be used to measure the flow rate of axisymmetric single-phase flows in a circular pipe. In many cases of application, it is not possible to provide a fully developed flow profile. Therefore, the inductive flow sensor has to cope with flow profiles that are not fully developed. To improve the accuracy, an inductive flow sensor with a pair of arc-shaped electrodes flush-mounted on the internal surface of an insulating section of a pipe is proposed in this article to investigate the characteristics of vertical gas-water two-phase flows. The effect of the flow profile on the inductive flow sensor is analyzed. A key contribution of the present work is to estimate the relationship between the induced voltage and the velocity of the conductive phase in two-phase flows. The estimation is achieved by the analytical calculation of magnetic-inductive equations through the method of variables separation. The analytical solution is compared with the results from an ideal model and from numerical simulation. Experiments are conducted to calibrate the inductive flow sensor with arc-shaped electrodes (IFS-AE). It is noted that the proposed IFS-AE can be adopted to obtain the velocity of the conductive phase in two-phase flows by measuring the voltage induced on the arc-shaped electrodes.     

High data rate measurements of droplet dynamics in a vertical gas-liquid annular flow

Two-dimensional phase Doppler anemometry techniques have been used to achieve simultaneous measurement of the velocity and size of individual droplets entrained into the gas core during upward annular gas-liquid flow. Data rates greatly exceeding those of other experimental techniques have been achieved. Information is presented on the centreline variation of droplet velocity and droplet size, together with size and velocity correlations, for a range of flowrates and hydrodynamic development lengths from 135 to 228.     

Capacitance sensor for void fraction measurement in water/steam flows

A capacitance sensor operating at RF range for void fraction measurements was developed. Two electrodes of the capacitor are mounted on the outer side of pipe walls. The variations in the percentage of phases in two-phase flow cause changes of the equivalent permittivity of the dielectric between the electrodes. The capacitor is connected in a resonant circuit of an oscillator tuned to high frequency of 80 MHz. The changes of frequency generated by the oscillator are the measure of the void fraction in the two-phase flow. An eight-channel system with capacitance sensors of this type was used for determination of the phase conversion along a steam injector.     

Cross-sectional void fraction distribution measurements in a vertical annulus two-phase flow by high speed X-ray computed tomography and real-time neutron radiography techniques

A real-time neutron radiography (RTNR) system and a high speed X-ray computed tomography (X-CT) system are compared for measurement of two-phase flow. Each system is used to determine the flow regime, and the void fraction distribution in a vertical annulus flow channel with particular attention on the temporal resolution of the systems and the time behaviour of the two-phase flow. The annulus flow channel is operated as a bubble column and measurements obtained for gas flow rates from 0.0 to 30.0 l/min. Both the RTNR and the X-CT systems show that the two-dimensional void fraction distribution can be obtained. The X-CT system is shown to have a superior temporal resolution capable of resolving the void fraction distribution in an (r,θ) plane in 4.0 ms. The RTNR system is shown to obtain void fraction distribution in a (r,z) plane in 33.0 ms. Void fraction distribution for bubbly flow and slug flow is determined.     

An instrumentation system for multi-parameter measurements of gas-solid two-phase flow based on Capacitance-Electrostatic sensor

In this paper, an instrumentation system for the measurements of local solid volumetric concentration, local solid velocity, local solid mass flowrate and solid mass flowrate in gas-solid two-phase flow system is developed. It is based on a new type of a Capacitance-Electrostatic sensor (CES). The CES sensor is mainly composed of a capacitance electrode array and two electrostatic electrode arrays. The optimum design of the sensor is achieved by finite element method. The capacitance electrode array is employed to detect the solid distribution over the cross-section of the pipe, and the local solid volumetric concentration measurement is further derived. The electrostatic electrode arrays are used to measure the local solid velocities in conjunction with cross-correlation method. From the local solid velocity and local volumetric concentration, the solid mass flowrate and the local solid mass flowrate can be achieved. The developed system for the local solid volumetric concentration measurement is verified through analogue simulation experiments and static experiments. Finally, the system is employed to measure the local solid volumetric concentration, local solid velocity, local solid mass flowrate and solid mass flowrate on a belt conveyor. The experimental results show that the measurement error of the local solid volumetric concentration measurement results are less than 10.43% for solid local volumetric concentration ranging from 0.02 to 0.56, the standard deviations of the local solid velocity measurement results are less than 0.42 for solid velocity ranging from 3.5 m/s to 15.0 m/s, and the relative error of the solid mass flowrate is within −19.6% to +14.9% for solid mass flowrate ranging from 0.006 kg/s to 0.103 kg/s, indicating that the system is capable of achieving multi-parameters measurement in gas-solid two-phase flow system.     

Branching of two-phase flow from a vertical header to horizontal parallel channels

The objective of the present experimental work is to investigate the two-phase flow distribution from a vertical main to parallel horizontal branches. Both the main and the branches have rectangular cross-sections simulating the header and the channels of the compact heat exchangers for air-conditioning systems. The cross section of the main is 8 mm × 8 mm while that of the parallel branches is 8 mm × 1 mm. Here, the second (downstream) junction was taken as the reference. The effect of the distance between the branches was mainly examined by changing it from 9 mm to 49 mm for the given flow conditions at the inlet of the downstream junction. Air and water were used as the test fluids. The superficial velocity ranges of air and water at the test section inlet were 13.2–21.4 m/s and 0.08–0.28 m/s, respectively. When the branch spacing becomes smaller, the fraction of liquid separation through the downstream branch decreases. The trend remains the same over the entire range of the present experiment, i.e., for different values of quality and the mass flow rate at the inlet of the downstream junction. Based on the correlation for single T-junctions, a modified correlation was proposed to take into account the effect of the branch distance in predicting the fraction of liquid separation. The correlation represents the experimental results within the accuracy of ±15 %. This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by Associate Editor Kyung-Soo Yang Jun Kyoung Lee received his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering from Busan National University in 1999. He then received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from KAIST in 2001 and 2005, respectively. Dr. Lee is currently a Professor at the School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation at Kyungnam University in Masan, Korea. Dr. Lee’s research interests are in the area of two-phase flow and heat transfer, micro-fluidics, cryogenic devices for superconductivity, thermal management systems for automobiles.     

Estimation of bubble size distributions and shapes in two-phase bubble column using image analysis and optical probes

A precise estimation of bubble size distributions and shapes is required to characterize the bubble column fluid dynamics at the “bubble-scale”, and to evaluate the heat and mass transfer rate in bubble column reactors. Image analysis methods can be used to measure the bubble size distributions and shapes; unfortunately, these experimental techniques are limited to resolve bubble clusters and large void fractions, and can not be applied under relevant operating conditions (e.g., high temperature and pressure). On the other hand, needle probes (i.e, optical and conductive probes) can be used to measure bubble sizes in dense bubbly flows and under relevant operating conditions; however, needle probes measure chord length distributions, which should be converted into bubble size distributions by using statistical algorithms. These algorithms rely on correlations—generally obtained for single droplets/bubbles—that predicts the bubble shapes, by relating the bubble equivalent diameter to the bubble aspect ratio. In this paper, we contribute to the existing discussion through an experimental study regarding the bubble sizes and aspect ratio in a large air-water bubble column. The experimental investigation has consisted in gas holdup, image analysis and optical probe measurements. First, the gas holdup measurements have been used to identify the flow regime transition between the homogeneous flow regime and the transition flow regime. Secondly, the homogeneous flow regime has been described at the “bubble-scale”: chord length distributions and bubble size distributions have been obtained by using an optical probe and image analysis, respectively. Based on the experimental data from the image analysis, a correlation between the bubble equivalent diameter and the bubble aspect ratio has been proposed and has been compared with existing correlations. Finally, the chord length distributions have been converted into bubble size distributions using a statistical method, supported by the aspect ratio obtained through image analysis. The proposed approach has been able to estimate correctly the bubble size distributions at the center of the column then near the wall. We have also demonstrated that the correlations used to predicts the bubble shapes are the main point of improvement in the method.     

PIV measurements of the time-averaged flow velocity downstream of flow conditioners in a pipeline

The flow downstream of three different flow conditioners, a tube bundle and two perforated plates, was investigated by measuring the time-averaged, axial velocity component with Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). The conditioners were exposed to the flow disturbed by a 90° out-of-plane double-bend. The experiments were performed with air flow through a pipeline of 100 mm i.d. and at Reynolds numbers between 100 000 and 200 000. The axial development of the velocity profiles, without and with conditioner, is documented, and the performance of the three devices in conditioning the disturbed flow can be compared. Particular attention is given to the determination of time-averaged velocity values by means of PIV.     

气液环状流周向液膜测量传感器的优化设计

以气液两相环状流管道横截面的周向液膜为测量对象,采用单台高速摄像机和平面反射镜组构建了虚拟双视角的视觉传感器,并对传感器进行了优化。基于虚拟双目立体视觉原理建立虚拟双视角视觉传感器测量模型。为了尽可能增大有效拍摄视角以获得更多液膜流动信息,综合考虑视场区域、传感器尺寸、测量距离以及管道光路折射等因素,对虚拟双视角视觉传感器模型进行了分析和设计,优化了传感器模型的结构参数。理论分析及实验结果表明:优化后的虚拟双视角视觉传感器可以获得近300°的有效周向测量视角,远远优于使用单台高速摄像机进行直接拍摄。该项研究为通过双视角视觉传感器进行气液两相环状流周向液膜的实时测量提供了理论基础,对研究液膜厚度和分析环状流流动状态具有重要意义。