An experimental study on cavitation erosion-corrosion performance of ANSI 1020 and ANSI 4135 steel

Cavitation erosion is quite complex, containing corrosion-erosion interaction effect. High temperature oxidization may be aroused after bubble collapse, accompanied by hot gas contacting with the pump component surface. The analysis of the erosion pits can be an effective way to know the mechanism of cavitation erosion. In present paper, the cavitation erosion resistance of carbon steel (ANSI 1020) and alloy steel (ANSI 4135) were tested in an ultrasonic vibration apparatus. By using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscope and three dimensional laser microscope, the chemical composition around erosion pits and the oxidation film structure were analyzed. By using metallographic microscope and scanning electronic microscope, the metallographic structure of specimens (e.g., carbon steel and alloy steel), the nano structured iron oxide and corresponding influence on specimen’s anti-erosion performance were discussed. Based on the comparison between the different tests performed in distilled water and tap water respectively, results can be obtained that erosion rate of carbon steel and alloy steel varies with the component of water which had close correlation to the oxidation effect. Erosion rate of alloy steel 4135 was much lower in distilled water compared to tap water while the difference of carbon steel 1020 was not that large. The remarkable different responses of these two materials had close relationship with oxidation effect. The oxidation effect transferred the original structure of alloy steel surface which had high anti-erosion capability, into newly generated iron oxide structure, which was preferentially to be attacked. The pumping of slightly corrosive fluids frequently leads to erosion-corrosion damage on impellers, and corrosion can further amplify the erosion process.     

Formation and Development of Iridescent Rings Around Cavitation Erosion Pits

The erosion pits formed in an ultrasound vibration cavitation were compared to those corrosion pits formed in static water. Concentric iridescent rings around the erosion pit make it different from those corrosion pits. The distinct color and the α-FeOOH structure of the rings indicated that the iridescent rings were oxidization film formed under high temperature generated in the cavitation environment. According to the direct observation on the development of the iridescent rings under microscope, the formation of the iridescent rings was attributed to the repeated interactions between mechanical removal and high temperature oxidization during the cavitation erosion. This work also illustrated the synergistic effect of erosion-enhanced corrosion during the cavitation erosion.     

Erosion of aluminum 6061-T6 under cavitation attack in mineral oil and water

Studies of the erosion of aluminum 6061-T6 under cavitation attack in distilled water, ordinary tap water and a viscous mineral oil are presented. The mean depth of penetration for the mineral oil was about 40% of that for water at the end of a 40 min test. The mean depth of penetration and its rate did not differ significantly for distilled and tap water. The mean depth of penetration rate for both distilled and tap water increased to a maximum and then decreased with test duration, while that for mineral oil had a maximum during the initial period. The ratio $\text{h}\text{2a}$ of the pit depth h to the pit diameter 2a varied from 0.04 to 0.13 in water and from 0.06 to 0.20 in mineral oil. Scanning electron microscopy indicates that the pits are initially formed over the grain boundaries and precipitates while the surface grains are deformed under cavitation attack.     

水介质对超声空蚀纳米生成物形貌的影响

为探究水介质下超声空蚀纳米结构的生成机制,研究不同水介质条件下超声空蚀纳米生成物的形貌特征。利用超声振动空蚀实验装置,在4种不同水介质中分别对45钢样品进行超声空蚀实验,通过激光共聚焦显微镜、扫描电子显微镜对实验后样品表面空蚀纳米生成物形貌进行分析。结果表明:45钢在不同水介质中空蚀生成的纳米微结构有很大差异;在去离子水和Na Cl溶液中空蚀坑环状区域纳米结构呈现为不规则絮状结构,在自来水和Na₂SO₄溶液中生成的空蚀坑周围形成了纳米多层片状结构;在自来水中,随着超声时间的增加,纳米单层片状结构先是长度方向尺寸增大,后逐渐叠加成纳米多层片状结构,总厚度增大。45钢在自来水中超声空蚀生成的纳米多层片状结构的尺寸,与实验时间和介质中离子有关,源于空蚀-腐蚀耦合作用产生;自来水中的SO₄^2-等离子也为片状纳米层间的组装起到促进作用。     

Corrosion fatigue of steel under cavitation erosion generated intermittently in 3% salt water (results of two-stage tests with and without cavitation erosion)

Two-stage fatigue tests with and without cavitation erosion were performed in 3% salt water. When corrosion fatigue with cavitation erosion (erosion fatigue) is changed to corrosion fatigue during a test, the fatigue life decreases remarkably and the total number of stress cycles to failure becomes smaller than that for tests involving erosion fatigue only. In the reverse case, when corrosion fatigue conditions are changed to erosion fatigue conditions, the fatigue life increases slightly compared with the life expected from the linear damage law (Miner's law). The variation in fatigue strength can be explained by the characteristics of crack propagation in each environment. From these results, it is presumed that the corrosion fatigue strength of the material exposed intermittently to cavitation erosion decreases remarkably.     

Influence of cavitation erosion on corrosion fatigue and the effect of surface coatings on resistance

The fracture of S35C test pieces under cavitation erosion in 3% salt water occurs in the area of corrosion as in the case of corrosion fatigue without cavitation erosion. However, erosion fatigue strength decreases more than corrosion fatigue strength owing to the formation of a macrogalvanic cell between the erosion and corrosion areas. When the surface of the test piece is coated with either a less noble or a more noble metal than that of the matrix, its fatigue strength is recovered. The effects of different materials, test liquids and distances between the disc and test piece are also considered.     

Cavitation damage prediction

New results from cavitating venturi water tests were used to reinforce the concept of cavitation erosion efficiency previously developed from tests in a vibratory facility with both water and sodium. The concept emerges from a technique which allows a priori prediction of eventual cavitation erosion rates in flow machines. Bubble collapse pulse height spectra obtained from submerged microprobes are correlated with measured erosion rates in given laboratory and/or field devices to allow this prediction. Preliminary results from such correlations are presented together with other measurements of the effects of gas content, velocity and cavitation condition upon the mechanical cavitation intensity as measured by the pulse height spectra.New results from vibratory facility tests in tap water and synthetic seawater upon three materials of variable corrodability (304 stainless steel, 1018 carbon steel and 1100-0 aluminum) are presented. The ratio between maximum erosion rates for the saltwater and freshwater tests were found to increase toward unity as the mechanical cavitation intensity is increased, i.e. increased mean depth to penetration (MDPR), as expected on theoretical grounds.The relation between the incubation period and MDPR_max was examined from the vibratory test results, and was found to depend upon the material properties as well as the fluid flow conditions.     

A ring area formed around the erosion pit on 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel surface in incipient cavitation erosion

After a 1 min cavitation experiment performed in an ultrasonic vibration system, needle-like erosion pits appeared on a polished stainless steel surface, and a special ring area was formed around each pit. The shape of the pit and the plastic deformation of the ring area indicate that the mechanical impaction on the surface is the main reason for the cavitation erosion. On the other hand, the iridescent color, the decreased surface hardness and the appearance of the precipitated carbon ring prove that the ring area has experienced a tempering process with the temperature higher than 300 °C. Also, the lack of oxygen in the ring area proves that it is not a chemical oxygen result.     

Slurry Erosion–Corrosion of Carburized AISI 5117 Steel

The erosion–corrosion of carburized and untreated low alloy steel (AISI 5117) has been investigated using slurry whirling-arm test rig. Erosion–corrosion tests were carried out in slurries composed of sand particles and either tap water or 3 % NaCl solution. The tests were carried out with particles concentration of 1 wt% and slurry stream impact velocity of 15 m/s. Silica sand having a nominal size range of 250–355 μm was used as an erodent. It has been shown that the erosion and erosion–corrosion resistance of AISI 5117 low alloy steel can be effectively improved by carburizing for all impact angles. However, the effectiveness of carburizing was the highest for an impact angle of 45°, where the erosion and erosion–corrosion resistance were increased by 60–40 %, respectively, compared with that of the untreated material. The results showed that the treated and untreated specimens behaved as ductile materials under erosion and erosion–corrosion tests, and the maximum mass loss occurred at an impact angle of 45°. SEM analysis showed that the erosion tracks developed on the untreated specimens were wider and deeper than that formed on the carburized specimens for erosion and erosion–corrosion tests.     

1100-0铝和1018碳钢文氏管空蚀试验的流速指数和空化数

本研究的目的是要估价一下文氏管喉部流速在空化数不变时对试件空化侵蚀的影响。此处的空化数是根据文氏管的出口条件算出的。最近在密执安大学高速空蚀试验装置中曾用27℃的自来水对1018碳钢和1100－0铝进行了试验。目前的试验结果与密执安大学过去所得的结果很符合,表明对于流速范围为10～49米/秒的情况,流速破坏指数在±1～5的范围内变动。     

Cavitation erosion resistance of high nitrogen stainless steel in comparison with low N content CrMnN stainless steel

Abstract

The cavitation erosion (CE) of a high nitrogen stainless steel (HNS) and a low nitrogen CrMnN stainless steel in both distilled water and 3%NaCl solution at 20±1°C was investigated by using a magnetostrictive induced cavitation facility. The evolution of CE with test time was analysed by morphology observation by SEM and roughness measurement after different CE intervals. The possible phase transformation of austenite to martensite due to cavitation was analysed by XRD, and cross-sectional microhardness after cavitation was also measured to evaluate the work hardening ability. The role of corrosion was analysed by polarisation curve. The test results indicated that HNS had a relatively higher CE resistance than CrMnN steel, which was mainly attributed to its higher work hardening ability, thicker wok hardening layer and lower stacking fault energy. Different from that of the HNS, many tiny cracks could be clearly seen in the cross-section of eroded CrMnN steel especially at the ferrite zones. The pure erosion dominated the whole cavitation damage process, and the synergistic effect between corrosion and erosion was relatively small for both steels. The CE behaviour of HNS was relatively more sensitive to the corrosion media than that of CrMnN steel. Therefore, it should be a little bit careful when HNS was used in corrosive media.     

Velocity exponent and cavitation number for Venturi cavitation erosion of 1100-O aluminum and 1018 carbon steel

The purpose of the present investigation is to evaluate the effect of Venturi throat velocity on the cavitation erosion of specimens for constant cavitation number, which is here based on Venturi discharge conditions. 1018 carbon steel and 1100-O aluminum were tested in the University of Michigan high speed cavitation tunnel with tap water at 27 °C (80 °F). Results of present tests are consistent with previous work done at the University of Michigan, showing that the velocity-damage exponent varies over the range ±1–5 for the velocity range 10–49 m s^?1.     

Cavitation erosion resistance of Cr–N coating deposited on stainless steel

Results of investigation on cavitation-erosion resistance of Cr–N coating deposited on stainless steel X6CrNiTi18-10 (1H18N9T) by means of the cathodic-arc method are presented. The evaluation of Cr–N coating resistance to cavitation erosion is based on the investigation performed in a cavitation tunnel with a slot cavitator and tap water as a medium. The investigation was performed at variable-cavitation intensity and the estimated cavitation resistance parameters of coatings were the incubation period of damage and the instantaneous erosion rate after exposure of specified duration. It has been confirmed that the incubation period of the Cr–N coating damage is approximately 50% longer than that of the uncoated X6CrNiTi18-10 steel, and the instantaneous erosion rate after exposure of specified duration is comparable in both cases. The scanning microscope analysis indicates that the damage of Cr–N coating is due mainly to its delamination, while the erosion of deeper parts of the coating is of minor importance. The character of the coating and substrate damage in multiple locations indicates that the hard coating microparticles torn-off during the cavitation bubbles implosion hit against the coating and the revealed areas of substrate. As a result, the coating and especially the substrate of relatively low hardness are subject to cavitation erosion and to solid particle erosion with the hard torn-off microparticles of coating. The results of the investigation and the analysis indicate that the factors mainly responsible for a long incubation period and low cavitation erosion rate of the steel substrate/hard coating systems are the gained high hardness of substrate and high level of coating adhesion.     

Vibratory cavitation erosion in aqueous solutions

Vibratory cavitation erosion tests on AISI-SAE 1018 carbon steel in tap water and in mild (0.1 M) aqueous solutions of CaCO₃, CaO, NaHCO₃ and NaOH were conducted at a temperature of 80 °F (27 °C), a double amplitude of 1.38 × 10^?3 in (35.1 μm) and a pressure of 1 atm. For the maximum (150 min) test duration the weight loss in tap water (no additive) is the smallest. However, this is not the case for shorter test times. The biggest difference between weight losses among the various solutions is about 10% – 30%, which is somewhat beyond natural data scatter for such vibratory tests. Released gases and also particles may play an important role in the results.There are three easily distinguishable damage regions for all cavitated surfaces, i.e. generally undamaged rim, central heavily damaged region and transition region, as for most vibratory tests. The relative areas of the three regions are about 53.5%, 0.13% and 46.4% respectively for the present tests.The erosion rate and extent of the damaged regions do not depend substantially on the solute tested. The very small area of the heavily damaged central region is presumably due to the relatively low horn amplitude used in these tests. The increase in damage rate with respect to tap water is about 50% for the maximum test duration.Surface photographs and scanning electron microscopy photomicrographs (for a test duration of 150 min) are presented. Cracks, intercrystalline fractures and single-blow craters are most concentrated in the central region, as would be expected.     

Cavitation damage studies using plasticine

Two mechanisms, namely, the spherical pressure wave and the microjet, have been used to account for the erosion of materials resulting from the collapse of cavitation bubbles. In recent years, however, high speed photography of collapsing bubbles has added support to the microjet mechanism. Experiments have been undertaken by the authors to examine the mechanism of the erosion of materials subjected to a cavitation environment. Stationary specimens of plasticine held in close proximity to the end of an ultrasonic horn have been damaged by cavitation in distilled water. By virtue of the features of the pits formed, as shown in the photographs in the paper, it is concluded that the cavitation erosion damage results from the impingement of high velocity microjets on the material surface during bubble collapse.     

Deformation and Fracture of Single-Crystal and Sintered Polycrystalline Silicon Carbide Produced by Cavitation

An investigation was conducted to examine the deformation and fracture behavior of single-crystal and sintered polycrystalline SiC surfaces exposed to cavitation. Cavitation erosion experiments were conducted in distilled water at 25°C using a magnetostrictive oscillator in close proximity (1 mm) to the surface of SiC. The horn frequency was 20 kHz, and the double amplitude of the vibrating disk was 50 μm. The results of the investigation indicate that the SiC {0001} surface could be deformed, in a plastic manner during cavitation. Dislocation etch pits ware formed when the surface was chemically etched. The number of defects, including dislocations in the SiC {0001} surface, increased with increasing exposure time to cavitation. The presence of intrinsic defects such as voids in the surficial layers of the sintered polycrystalline SiC determined the zones at which fractured grains and fracture pits (pores) were generated during cavitation. Single-crystal SiC had superior erosion resistance to that of sintered polycrystalline SiC.     

Cavitation erosion in a dilute emulsion

The cavitation erosion of mild steel, brass, and pure iron in emulsions made with distilled water and 1.0% NaCl solution was investigated using a vibratory apparatus operating at 20 kHz and 15 μm amplitude. The emulsion reduced the steady-state erosion rate of mild steel in distilled and salt water to about 80% and 30%, respectively, of the values for no emulsion, but had no effect on brass in distilled water. Changes in the microstructures of the eroded surfaces and in the pH of the solution are presented and discussed in relation to the erosion curves.     

Cavitation damage incubation with typical fluids applied to a scroll expander system

During the operation of a scroll expander system overpressure may occur resulting in cavitation damage. Impacts due to implosion of cavitation bubbles near to suction ports can result in damage to the scroll plate in the expander. The accumulation of cavitation pits across the scroll plate leads to cavitation erosion hence efficiency drop. An experimental analysis to identify the mechanical damage of the cavitation on various steel surfaces with different liquid environments was conducted.Three liquid environments and four steel grades were utilised experimentally. The liquids used for the tests were distilled water, used as a reference liquid, and the two working fluids of the scroll expander a synthetic lubricant and a high molecular refrigerant. The steel grades were a high carbon (AISI 1085) and low carbon (AISI 1010) martensitic steel with retained austenite, a chromium martensitic steel (AISI 52100) and a martensitic scroll plate (SP) sample. An ultrasonic transducer was utilised to produce cavitation conditions using a 5 mm diameter probe. The comparison of the results revealed the most hostile liquid environment according to the morphology evaluation of the incubation pits. The cavitation mechanisms are discussed and the cavitation resistance of the steel grades is evaluated. The best performing steel material against cavitation is determined for the conditions described.     

Cavitation damage incubation with typical fluids applied to a scroll expander system

During the operation of a scroll expander system overpressure may occur resulting in cavitation damage. Impacts due to implosion of cavitation bubbles near to suction ports can result in damage to the scroll plate in the expander. The accumulation of cavitation pits across the scroll plate leads to cavitation erosion hence efficiency drop. An experimental analysis to identify the mechanical damage of the cavitation on various steel surfaces with different liquid environments was conducted.Three liquid environments and four steel grades were utilised experimentally. The liquids used for the tests were distilled water, used as a reference liquid, and the two working fluids of the scroll expander a synthetic lubricant and a high molecular refrigerant. The steel grades were a high carbon (AISI 1085) and low carbon (AISI 1010) martensitic steel with retained austenite, a chromium martensitic steel (AISI 52100) and a martensitic scroll plate (SP) sample. An ultrasonic transducer was utilised to produce cavitation conditions using a 5 mm diameter probe. The comparison of the results revealed the most hostile liquid environment according to the morphology evaluation of the incubation pits. The cavitation mechanisms are discussed and the cavitation resistance of the steel grades is evaluated. The best performing steel material against cavitation is determined for the conditions described.     

MICRO-COURSE OF CAVITATION EROSION

By cavitation tests and scanning electron microscope （SEM） microanalysis, the micro-appearance of cavitation samples is studied. It is the first time that the micro-appearance of metals is pursued successfully. According to the changing course of the micro-appearance of metals, the damaging course of cavitation erosion is determined. The destructive way of collapsing bubbles on the metal surface is known. Firstly cavitation pinholes appear on the metal surface, then cracks generate and grow under the action of collapsing bubbles. When cracks connect each other, small pieces are removed from pinhole wall and pinholes develop into cavitation pits. When the previous surface is removed completely, new pinholes are produced again on the new surface. A pinhole is the result of the powerful striking of a micro-liquid jet ejected by a large collapsed bubble near the surface. At some stages, cracks grow in the way of fatigue. The corrosion phenomenon is observed during the cavitation erosion. The cavitation pattern can be used to explain the cavitation pregnancy and the changing regulation of sample surface.