Experimental analysis of historic masonry walls reinforced by CFRP under in-plane cyclic loading

External bonding of Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) has become a popular technique for strengthening historic masonry wall buildings in seismic area. Although FRPs seem to improve response of historic masonry walls under in-plane shear loading, further investigations must specify a number of aspects for both researchers and practitioners. This paper presents an experimental analysis pertaining to the response of unreinforced and reinforced historic masonry walls built using full clay bricks in scale 1/3rd. On the basis of previous experimental research carried out by shear tests on triplets and unreinforced walls, a shear criterion for historic unreinforced masonry (HURM) has been assumed. In this experimental analysis two HURM walls, characterized by double T shape, were subjected to in-plane cyclic loading to shear cracking. The damaged walls were reinforced using horizontal–vertical and diagonal Carbon FRP strips. An anchorage system was also put into place to improve the adhesion of the strips used; the historic reinforced masonry (HRM) walls were tested by cyclic loading until failure. The experimental results are illustrated and discussed taking into account the delamination failure of the CFRP strips. Finally, the increase obtained in walls’ shear capacity is analysed considering theoretical bilinear diagrams and the coefficient of ductility.     

Experimental analysis of historic masonry walls reinforced by CFRP under in-plane cyclic loading

External bonding of Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) has become a popular technique for strengthening historic masonry wall buildings in seismic area. Although FRPs seem to improve response of historic masonry walls under in-plane shear loading, further investigations must specify a number of aspects for both researchers and practitioners. This paper presents an experimental analysis pertaining to the response of unreinforced and reinforced historic masonry walls built using full clay bricks in scale 1/3rd. On the basis of previous experimental research carried out by shear tests on triplets and unreinforced walls, a shear criterion for historic unreinforced masonry (HURM) has been assumed. In this experimental analysis two HURM walls, characterized by double T shape, were subjected to in-plane cyclic loading to shear cracking. The damaged walls were reinforced using horizontal–vertical and diagonal Carbon FRP strips. An anchorage system was also put into place to improve the adhesion of the strips used; the historic reinforced masonry (HRM) walls were tested by cyclic loading until failure. The experimental results are illustrated and discussed taking into account the delamination failure of the CFRP strips. Finally, the increase obtained in walls’ shear capacity is analysed considering theoretical bilinear diagrams and the coefficient of ductility.     

高延性混凝土加固无筋砖墙抗震性能试验研究与承载力分析

为研究高延性混凝土(HDC)加固无筋砖墙的抗震性能,设计制作了3片HDC面层加固砖墙、1片钢筋网水泥砂浆面层加固砖墙和1片作为对比试件的未加固砖墙,通过拟静力试验,研究了HDC面层加固砖墙的破坏形态、滞回性能及耗能能力。试验结果表明:HDC面层可对墙体形成约束作用,延缓墙体开裂并改变墙体的破坏模式,提高墙体的承载力和延性;与钢筋网水泥砂浆面层加固相比,单面HDC加固的墙体开裂荷载与耗能能力明显提高,承载力下降缓慢。针对试件的破坏形态,考虑未开裂区加固面层对墙体水平承载力的贡献,提出了加固墙体的承载力计算方法,并根据试验结果进行了验证。     

砌体墙的破坏准则及剪压复合作用下抗剪承载力

砌体墙在竖向压力和平面内水平剪力复合作用下的破坏准则是确定砌体抗剪承载力的重要依据。通过对比分析, 推导出基于最大主应力理论、剪摩理论、Mohr 理论和变形能理论的适合于砌体在剪压复合作用下的破坏准则。考虑到微元体与宏观墙模型的差别, 建立了相应于各种破坏准则的砌体抗剪承载力计算公式。并将公式的计算结果与收集的111 片普通粘土砖砌体墙片的试验结果进行了对比分析, 得到了常用多层砌体房屋墙的抗剪承载力计算公式。     

Out-of-plane flexural behavior of unreinforced red brick walls strengthened with FRP composites

This paper presents the results of a study focused on evaluating the out-of-plane flexural behavior of two fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite systems for strengthening unreinforced red brick masonry walls. The full-scale tests followed the International Code Council Evaluation Service (ICC-ES) AC 125 procedure. In the experimental program, a total of four full-scale destructive tests were conducted on UMR red brick walls. One wall specimen was used as control (as-built) specimen without composites, and the remaining three wall specimens were strengthened with either E-glass/epoxy or carbon/epoxy composite systems with different fiber architecture. The effect of applying a cross-ply laminate on the ultimate failure mode has been investigated. Full-scale experimental results confirmed the effectiveness of the FRP composite strengthening systems in upgrading the out-of-plane flexural structural performance of URM walls. In addition, an analytical model was developed to predict the ultimate load capacity of the retrofitted walls. The analytical modeling is based on deformation compatibility and force equilibrium using simple section analysis procedure. A good agreement between the experimental and theoretical results was obtained.     

型钢再生混凝土框架-再生砌块填充墙结构恢复力模型试验研究

对7榀1/2.5比例单层单跨型钢再生混凝土框架-再生砌块填充墙模型进行低周反复荷载作用下的抗震性能试验研究,分析了墙体设置形式、填充墙砌块强度、拉筋构造形式、轴压比以及墙体宽高比等设计参数对该种结构抗震性能的影响。研究了模型的典型破坏形态、荷载-位移曲线、承载能力以及位移延性等。结果表明:试验模型的典型破坏形态均符合“强柱弱梁”的破坏模式,框架部分的破坏程度随墙体全高填砌而减轻;在框架中加设墙体后可明显提高结构承载力和初始刚度,墙体填充率越大、填充墙砌块强度越高、拉筋间距越小、轴压比越高、墙体宽高比越大,结构承载力与初始刚度提高越明显;结构的位移延性均值达到6.26,高于钢筋再生混凝土框架-填充墙、普通钢筋混凝土框架-填充墙以及钢筋混凝土异形柱框架-填充墙等结构,抗倒塌能力较强。在试验研究的基础上,通过有限元与试验结合的方法,建立了相应的四折线恢复力模型,可用于型钢再生混凝土框架结构的弹塑性地震反应分析。     

接触爆炸下黏土砖砌体墙的抗爆性能

为了研究接触爆炸下黏土砖砌体墙的抗爆性能，采用LS-DYNA有限元软件，以传统单面黏土砖砌体墙为例，建立了黏土砖砌体墙三维分离式细观模型，分析了不同强度接触爆炸载荷下墙体的毁伤和破坏特征。使用两种不同质量的TNT炸药对普通黏土砖墙体在单方向支撑条件下进行了对应的接触爆炸试验验证，并研究其工作机理及响应特性。分析结果表明，随着爆炸载荷的逐渐增加，接触爆炸对墙体的破坏形式主要由中央爆坑以及水平、竖直方向的十字形裂纹的形成，转化为灰缝的层裂、崩落、贯穿以及墙体的错位和倒塌。     

Numerical derivation of homogenized dynamic masonry material properties with strain rate effects

Masonry is a composite material composed of bricks and mortar disposed in a regular arrangement. It is commonly used as load bearing or partition walls in building structures. Owing to limitations of computer power, detailed distinctive modelling of brick and mortar of a realistic masonry structure or a structure with masonry infilled walls is usually not possible. Moreover, no dynamic masonry material model can be found in the open literature. Dynamic masonry material properties are important for an accurate prediction of masonry failure and fragmentation under dynamic loads. In this paper, a continuum damage model with strain rate effect is developed for masonry materials based on the homogenization method. The equivalent elastic properties, strength envelope and dynamic increase factors (DIFs) of strength and moduli for the homogenized masonry material are numerically derived from the simulated responses of a representative volume element (RVE). A numerical model of an RVE is analyzed with detailed distinctive modelling of brick and mortar with their respective dynamic material properties obtained from laboratory tests. The homogenized material model can be used to analyse large-scale masonry structures subjected to dynamic loading.     

ECC面层加固受损砖砌体墙抗震性能试验研究

高延性纤维增强水泥基复合材料(ECC)具有高强度、高延性和受拉应变硬化等特性,在加固工程中具有广泛的应用前景。该文对4片采用ECC面层加固的受损砖墙进行了低周反复荷载试验,并与相关文献中4个试件进行比较,研究了ECC面层加固砖砌体墙的破坏机理、破坏形态、滞回特性和变形能力。结果表明:1) 采用ECC面层加固受损砖砌体墙,可显著提高砖墙的变形能力,改善加固后墙体的抗震性能;2) ECC面层对内部砖墙形成良好的约束作用,可显著改善砖墙的脆性破坏模式,是一种有效的砌体结构加固方法;3) 改善ECC面层与构造柱之间的粘结性能,保证ECC面层有效传递剪力,对提高加固后墙体的整体性能具有重要作用。该文的研究结果为砌体结构抗震加固提出了一种新方法,具有良好的推广和应用前景。     

高延性混凝土加固蒸压加气混凝土砌体墙抗震性能试验研究

蒸压加气混凝土(AAC)砌块砌体墙自重轻,但其抗震性能较差,为提高该类墙体的抗震性能,提出采用高延性混凝土(HDC)面层和条带对其进行加固。设计制作了4个无筋砌体墙和2个构造柱约束墙体试件,其中2个试件采用HDC面层加固,2个试件采用HDC条带加固,通过拟静力试验,研究AAC砌体墙的破坏形态、滞回性能、承载力及变形能力等性能。试验结果表明:HDC面层可改变AAC墙体的破坏模式;对于无筋砌体墙,加固后试件的承载力、变形及耗能能力均得到了不同程度的提高,墙体裂缝数量明显减少,刚度退化较为平缓;对于构造柱约束墙体,单面HDC面层使加固试件的侧向刚度、水平承载力及耗能能力均大幅提高,且加固试件具有较高的残余承载力,墙体的开裂和损伤程度较小。基于试件的破坏形态,提出加固墙体的水平承载力计算方法,其计算结果与试验结果吻合较好,可为HDC加固AAC砌块墙体的承载力计算提供参考。     

Textile reinforcement in the bed joint of basement masonry and infill walls subjected to high wind loads

The successful structural verification of basement walls under earth pressure loading with light vertical loading is often difficult. This situation is often encountered for external basement walls under terrace doors, stairs, masonry light wells, etc., where the vertical loading that is theoretically necessary is absent. This makes it impossible to resist the acting flexural forces from earth using a vertical arch model alone. In such cases the basement wall must also resist the earth pressure in a horizontal direction. However, due to the fact the bending moment capacity of unreinforced masonry parallel to the bed joint is low you have the option here of using a textile‐reinforced bed joint with longitudinal fibres of alkali‐resistant glass or carbon fibre. With an appropriately adapted textile reinforcement in the bed joints, the masonry can fulfil the requirements for load‐bearing capacity against earth pressure with a horizontal load transfer, even under a small vertical load. The same applies to infill walls subjected to high wind loads the bending moment capacities of which are also slightly parallel to and vertically to the bed joint and cannot be provably demonstrated on large infill surfaces and strong wind loads. The load‐bearing can also be increased by improving the flexural strength parallel to the bed joint. The Chair of Structural Design in the Faculty of Architecture of the Technical University (TU) Dresden was carrying out extensive numerical and experimental studies for this purpose. In the journal Mauerwerk 01/2018 [1] first findings from small trial series have already been presented. In the meantime, a series of large‐scale tests have additionally been performed to check the promising results of the small‐scale tests with respect to their real applicability. This report should provide a combined insight into the work of the concluded research project.     

CFRP加固砌体结构的试验研究

采用两种不同的加固方案,对四片砌体墙进行了试验研究,介绍了试验中对构件的加载控制过程,分析了用CFRP加固后砌体结构在水平低周反复荷载作用下的延性和水平承载能力,并对各种方案的试验结果及试验现象进行了分析研究,比较了不同的加固方案对砌体的抗剪承载力、抗震性能、延性等各方面的影响程度,根据试验结果提出了简易计算公式,计算值与试验数据吻合较好。理论与试验证明,采用CFRP加固后,砌体结构具有良好的抗震性能。因而,CFRP加固砌体结构的方法,不失为一种比较有效可行的方法。     

On the in-plane shear response of the high bond strength concrete masonry walls

Conventional unreinforced masonry walls subject to in-plane shear loading fail due to exceedance of shear and tensile bond strengths. This paper examines whether or not the in-plane shear capacity of masonry walls would increase with the increase in the bond strengths through experimental and numerical investigations. For these investigations, shear walls were built with high bond strength polymer cement mortar; they were applied in thin layers of 2 mm thickness each. Material tests were carried out to characterise the bond and the compressive strengths of the high bond strength thin layer mortared masonry; the bond strengths were found approximately double that of the conventional 10 mm thick cement mortars. The shear walls, however, exhibited significantly lower capacity (contrasting the expectation) and displayed base course sliding mode of failure. To ascertain the validity of the experimental results, a combined surface contact—interface element micro finite element (FE) modelling technique was formulated; the results adequately reproduced the experimental datasets. The validated FE model was then applied to examine the effect of the aspect ratios and pre-compression levels to the failure modes, deformation and strength of the high bond strength shear walls and is shown that once the pre-compression exceeds 15% of the masonry compressive strength, the base sliding failure mode changes to the diagonal cracking mode with corresponding increase in in-plane shear capacity. Therefore, it is concluded that the increase the bond strength without regard to pre-compression could adversely affect the safety of the high bond strength unreinforced masonry shear walls.     

Effects of mortar layers in the delamination of GFRP bonded to historic masonry

Externally bonded fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) used as strengthening for shear historic masonry walls increase tensile capacity so as to support combined compression and high shear forces released during earthquakes. The local and global capacity of FRP strengthened shear walls depends on delamination. This paper deals with the anchorage strength of GFRP strips bonded to historic masonry by analysing results obtained in pull–push shear tests carried out on GFRP-to-historic-brick bonded joints. The experimental research also foresaw the analysis of effects deriving from the presence of mortar layers in actual historic brickwork masonry, simulated through the creation of grooves on the surface of mortar filled clay bricks. The experimental results indicated brittle failure of joints due to delamination; results were processed to evaluate failure load values, strain vs. anchorage length diagrams and shear stress vs. slip relationships experimentally. Finally, the anchorage of GFRP-to-historic-brick was theoretically studied to improve the classic solution by incorporating adherent shear deformation. Discussion on the experimental and theoretical data was developed.     

Uniform lateral load capacity of small-scale masonry wall panels

Masonry walls are often subject to imposed lateral loading due to the action of the wind, but assessing their performance experimentally can be costly, time consuming and there can be safety implications. This paper presents a novel approach to allow testing of small-scale (1/6th) brick/block masonry wall panels with a uniformly applied lateral load. Self-weight effects were correctly considered in the study by conducting the tests within a centrifuge. An innovative 3D digital image correlation method was successfully employed to measure deflections over the entire specimen surface. The effect of mortar strength, for brick specimens, was assessed in the study and it was found that the failure load increased for stronger mortars. Results were consistent between repeat specimens, both in terms of failure load and observed crack pattern. In addition a specimen with a small opening and a brick/block cavity wall assembly were tested. The opening was found to have minimal effect on the failure load, but a different crack pattern was observed. The cavity wall failed at a lower load than that suggested by design codes. Theoretical failure loads were calculated by the established yield line analysis method and compared reasonably well to the experimental values.     

Performance of single skin masonry walls subjected to hydraulic loading

Property owners are facing increasing threats from flooding and in response are likely to turn to products designed to waterproof or ‘seal’ the outside of the building in an effort to prevent the ingress of flood water. However, very limited research has been conducted on the effect of this sealing action and the consequent hydraulic load acting upon the structure of the building. The theoretical safe application of waterproofing products has been suggested to be between 0.6 and 1 m (published guidance suggests 0.9 m), although the experimental evidence supporting these suggestions is either absent or limited in nature. This paper presents the findings of an experimental programme that has examined the effect of out-of-plane hydrostatic loading on masonry walls typical of domestic or commercial buildings. The study, conducted at 1/6th scale using a geotechnical centrifuge considers wall panels constructed from a variety of masonry units (autoclaved aerated concrete block, brick and brick-block) bound together with two different types of mortar. The wall panels were subject to an axial load representative of 1 storey of loading and were simply supported on all 4 sides. The load—out-of-plane deflection response of the panels was captured by a 3D digital image correlation system, and the water level at failure was compared to that predicted from previous research and the established yield line analysis method with encouraging results. When partial material and load factors were taken into consideration the results illustrated that a safe sealing height of 0.9 m, as quoted in the literature, would generally be inappropriate, whilst the safe sealing height of 0.6 m was not suitable for every case investigated. This supports the need for a suitable approach for the calculation of water levels at failure rather than the use of fixed values given in published literature.     

钢筋网高延性混凝土加固砖柱偏心受压性能试验及计算方法研究

通过27个钢筋网高延性混凝土(HDC)面层加固砖柱的偏心受压试验,研究了不同偏心距荷载作用下加固砖柱的破坏形态和受力性能,并对荷载-位移曲线、极限承载力以及砖柱截面应变进行了分析。结果表明:钢筋网HDC面层与砌体具有良好的协调工作能力,可大幅度提高砖柱的承载力和变形能力,改善了砖柱的脆性破坏特征,并且提高了砖柱的整体性;随偏心距增大,砖柱的承载力逐渐降低,但初始偏心距并未削弱钢筋网HDC面层的加固效果。考虑HDC的抗拉作用,并对加固层的应力进行计算简化,得到钢筋网HDC面层加固偏心受压砖柱的承载力计算公式,与试验结果吻合较好。分析了二次受力对砖柱承载力的影响,给出了不同初始偏心荷载作用下的HDC抗压强度利用系数,可供加固设计参考使用。     

混凝土多孔砖墙体抗震性能试验研究

该文对6片混凝土多孔砖墙体进行了低周反复荷载试验研究,研究了不同类型混凝土多孔砖墙体在低周反复荷载作用下的变形规律、破坏形式、承载能力及抗震性能,探讨了高宽比、构造柱和墙体开洞对墙体初裂荷载、极限荷载和变形性能方面的影响,提出了混凝土多孔砖墙体抗剪承载力公式,研究成果可供混凝土多孔砖砌体结构的设计与研究参考。     

Experimental study of dry stone masonry walls using digital reflection photoelasticity

Response of dry stack stone masonry walls under mechanical loading is complex and difficult to determine, mainly due to heterogeneous and discrete nature of the components of the stone wall. In this paper, reflection photoelasticity is used on scaled down models of stone masonry wall under uniaxial compression. Two walls are tested, and the methods to obtain near perfect dry stack masonry for reflection photoelastic studies are presented. Five-step phase-shifting methods are employed with TFP/RGB photoelasticity to quantitatively analyse the mechanical behaviour of the dry stack masonry walls. Isochromatics and isoclinic data are processed to obtain other whole field experimental stress data. Highly stressed zones are observed resulting in distinctive localised vertical failure in some of the stone units. In dry stack masonry construction, the failure mechanism is found to be dictated by the contact mechanics, which are governed by the non-uniformity of block geometry even in very regular dry stack masonry.     

Textile reinforcement in the bed joint of basement masonry – First findings from a current research project

The successful structural verification of basement walls under earth pressure loading with light imposed loading is often difficult. This situation is often encountered for external basement walls under terrace doors, stairs, masonry light wells etc., where the theoretically necessary imposed loading is missing. This makes it impossible to resist the acting bending forces from earth pressure using a vertical arch model. In such cases, the earth pressure has to be resisted in a horizontal direction. Since however the bending moment capacity of unreinforced masonry parallel to the bed joint is low, another possibility is to use a textile‐reinforced bed joint with longitudinal fibres of alkali‐resistant glass or carbon fibre. With an appropriately adapted textile reinforcement in the bed joints, the masonry can fulfil the requirements for load‐bearing capacity against earth pressure with horizontal load transfer, even under a small imposed load. Textile reinforcement has the advantage above all of corrosion resistance compared to conventional steel reinforcement, and textiles can also be inserted into thin bed joints. The Chair of Structural Design in the Faculty of Architecture of the TU Dresden is currently carrying out extensive numerical and experimental studies for this purpose. The objective is to develop an optimal configuration of material and textile form for use as bed joint reinforcement. The investigations are concentrating on the tension strength, bonding and durability of the composite material ”textile mortar“. This report should give a brief overview of the state of the work in the currently running research project.