Influence of grape composition and winemaking on the anthocyanin composition of red wines of Tannat

The anthocyanin composition of Tannat red wines obtained with four winemaking techniques was evaluated in different years. The wines were elaborated with traditional maceration (TM), cold pre‐fermentative maceration, delayed extraction of anthocyanins and extended maceration. Two vinifications were carried out for each technique, employing 70 kg of grapes in each one. The anthocyanin composition of wines was analysed by high‐performance liquid chromatography–diode array detection. The results confirm the fundamental role of the grape composition on the anthocyanin composition of the wines. The winemaking had an important effect on the total concentration of anthocyanins and also may modify the anthocyanic profile of wines. The wines obtained with TM had higher or similar content of anthocyanins than those elaborated with the other techniques. Canonical discriminant analysis of data showed that vintage has a greater effect on anthocyanin concentration than winemaking techniques.     

Influence of the yeast strain on Monastrell wine colour

Two commercial yeast strains were assayed during the winemaking process of Monastrell grapes to determine their influence on colour and phenolic composition of the resulting wines during alcoholic fermentation and maturation. The results showed that in 2002, the wines did not present great differences but in 2003 higher colour intensity and phenolic compounds content were detected when one of the commercial strains was used. A discriminant statistical analysis clearly showed that different yeasts led to different wines as regard their chromatic characteristics.Industrial relevanceThe importance of yeast in winemaking is extensively known since they are responsible for the transformation of sugars into ethanol and for the formation of the most significant aroma compounds in wines. However, they may also participate in wine colour and this role is usually not taken into account in the wine industry. The choice of a yeast strain is an important factor since these microorganisms have the capacity to retain or adsorb phenolic compounds and, on the other hand, yeast may contribute to stabilizing wine colour, as a result of participating in the formation of vitisins during fermentation or liberating mannoproteins that have the capacity to bind to anthocyanins and tannins, protecting them from precipitation. Two commercial yeast strains were assayed during the winemaking process of Monastrell grapes to determine their influence on colour and phenolic composition of the resulting wines during alcoholic fermentation and maturation. The results showed that higher colour intensity and phenolic compounds content were detected when one of the commercial strains was used, both during fermentation and wine aging, and may be used as a tool during winemaking for obtaining stable and highly coloured wines.     

Anthocyanin profile of young red wines of Tannat,Syrah and Merlot made using maceration enzymes and cold soak

Anthocyanins are the main pigments of young red wines. The aim of this work was to evaluate the anthocyanin composition of red wines produced by alternative procedures of winemaking and different grape varieties. For this purpose, wines of Tannat, Syrah and Merlot were made by traditional maceration (TM), addition of maceration enzymes (ENZ) and cold soak (CS). Syrah wines had the highest proportions of malvidin (86.0 ± 1.0) and peonidin (5.5 ± 0.4), while Tannat wines had the highest of delphinidin (6.9 ± 0.8), petunidin (13.2 ± 0.6) and nonacylated glucosides (73.6 ± 0.6). Cold soak increased the anthocyanins contents in Tannat and Merlot wines. In turn, maceration enzymes affect the anthocyanin profile and the stability of the colour of wines. Discriminant analysis of data showed significant separation of the wines of each variety as the anthocyanin profile showed the varietal fingerprint, despite the different winemaking procedures.     

Characterisation and evolution of grape polyphenol profiles of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tannat during ripening and vinification

Background and Aims: Changes in different polyphenol families during grape ripening and vinification were determined in Tannat grapes. This was done to establish a polyphenol profile for Tannat grapes during ripening and for young wines. Methods and Results: We demonstrated, by high‐performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and mass spectrometry (HPLC‐DAD‐MS) analysis, that the content of flavan‐3‐ols in Tannat seeds was higher than that reported for a large number of other grape varieties analysed. Forty per cent of the total flavan‐3‐ols in seeds were galloylated compounds, whereas the flavan‐3‐ol profile in skins was characterised by the absence of galloylated forms. Prodelphinidins in skins ranged between 30 and 35% with very low values for epigallocatechin. Epicatechin gallate was not detected in Tannat wine and galloylated forms represented a low percentage of total flavan‐3‐ols. Tannat grapes had very high concentrations of anthocyanins in skins with levels increasing during ripening. Eleven phenolic acids were identified in Tannat grape skins and wines, but only gallic and protocatechuic acids were found in the seeds. Conclusions: Tannat wines were shown to have one of the highest levels of phenolic compounds reported for vinifera grape varieties. The profiles for different polyphenol families present in Tannat grapes (skins and seeds) and wines were determined. Significance of the Study: The results presented will help to better understand the phenolic winemaking potential of this variety and its functional properties within food chemistry.     

Effect of grape pre-drying and static pomace contact on physicochemical properties and sensory acceptance of Brazilian (Bordô and Isabel) red wines

Wine quality is evaluated by sensory attributes and physicochemical properties whose relationship is intensely investigated. This work aimed to analyze the physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of wines from Bordô and Isabel American grapes elaborated by a traditional and two novel winemaking processes: pre-drying and submerged static pomace. It was possible to observe significant differences between the samples in all physicochemical properties (P < 0.001), except in volatile acidity. Bordô and Isabel pre-drying wines presented the highest values of dry extract (43.00 and 33.66 g L^?1) in comparison with the other wines which presented dry extract below 30 g L^?1. Furthermore, pre-drying wines showed the highest phenolic content (1340.80 and 908.80 mg L^?1) in comparison with static pomace (998.02 and 433.46 mg L^?1) and traditional treatments (983.96 and 560.26 mg L^?1). Sensory analysis showed significant differences between the samples in all attributes, except in appearance acceptance. Cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling was successfully applied and allowed to observe the relationship between physicochemical properties and sensory attributes. Total phenolic content and color indexes were associated with the appearance of wines, as well as alcohol content and acidity on aroma. The results also revealed the connection between dry extract and total and reducing sugars with the body of wines from innovative vinification. The flavor was associated with several physicochemical properties and also influenced the global acceptance of the samples. The innovative wines showed great acceptance in all sensory attributes, and the employment of these treatments on an industrial scale should be considered once providing wines with unique characteristics.     

Influence of the elimination and addition of seeds on the colour,phenolic composition and astringency of red wine

Several winemaking techniques have been developed to eliminate seeds to prevent the release of high amounts of very astringent proanthocyanidins, especially when the grapes are unripe. However, there is no scientific information on the effects of this practice. The aim of this paper is to study how the elimination and addition of seeds influence the colour, phenolic composition and astringency of red wine. The elimination of around 80% of the seeds led to a significant decrease of colour intensity and anthocyanin concentration. The addition of seeds originated wines with a greater concentration of total anthocyanin, but did not significantly affect the wine colour. These wines also presented significantly higher levels of proanthocyanidins, a greater proportion of epicatechin-3-gallate, a lower mean degree of polymerization, and, in particular, a drastic increase in astringency. Wines obtained with the elimination of seeds, on the other hand, had exactly the opposite characteristics.     

Effect of the prefermentative addition of copigments on the polyphenolic composition of Tempranillo wines after malolactic fermentation

The influence of the prefermentative addition of copigments and different winemaking technologies on the polyphenolic composition of Tempranillo red wines after malolactic fermentation was studied. Six experiments dealing with the prefermentative addition of caffeic acid, rutin, (+) catechin, white grape skin tannin, white grape seed tannin and control wines were realised. Three different winemaking technologies (traditional vinification, prefermentative cold maceration at 6–8 °C and cold soak at 0–2 °C with dry ice) were studied. Prefermentative addition of copigments increases anthocyanin copigmentation reactions and produces wines with a greater colour, a higher anthocyanin concentration, a superior contribution of anthocyanins to the colour of the wine, a superior percentage of tannins polymerised with polysaccharides and less astringency. Cold prefermentative maceration increases the extraction of polyphenols, the anthocyanin copigmentation reactions and the polymerisation reactions between tannins and polysaccharides. The effectiveness of the combination of copigments and prefermentative maceration treatments was demonstrated by the increase of the concentration of the polyphenolic compounds.     

Effect of the winemaking technique on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics in young red wines

The effect of six winemaking techniques (traditional, prefermentative maceration, delestage, Ganimede fermentation system, enzymes and tannins addition, or oak chip addition during alcoholic fermentation) on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics of young red wines, elaborated from Mencía grapes grown in Galicia (northwestern Spain), was studied. The evolution of phenolic compounds from grapes to bottling and its influence on CIELab parameters were investigated. After bottling, 26 phenolic compounds were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and their influence on colour stability for ageing was evaluated. Principal component analysis allowed the differentiation of the winemaking techniques studied on the base of phenolic composition, which is correlated with polymerization grade of anthocyanins. This paper can contribute to improve the knowledge about the importance of selecting the winemaking technique to elaborate high-quality young red wines and to evaluate their ability for ageing. So, the addition of enzymes and tannins seems to be the most adequate winemaking technique to elaborate red wines for ageing as it results in the formation of major number of pigmented polymers that are stable over time. Nevertheless, the prefermentative maceration, Ganimede autowinemaker and the addition of oak chips can be used for the elaboration of young red wines.     

Influence of the heterogeneity of grape phenolic maturity on wine composition and quality

Nowadays, consumers demand red wines with deep colour, soft tannins and fruit scents, but these wines can only be obtained from grapes with complete phenolic maturity. Diverse methods have been proposed for measuring phenolic maturity. However, all these methods only provide the average value and do not consider any possible heterogeneity. Throughout ripening, grapes were separated according to their density, which revealed the existence of a large heterogeneity. Grapes at harvest were also separated by density in three groups. The higher the density of the grapes the higher ethanol content, pH, colour intensity, total phenolic index and anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin concentrations, and the lower the titratable acidity and bitterness of the wines. When the grapes were denser the wines were also better balanced in flavour and mouthfeel sensation. These results suggest that grape heterogeneity may influence the final wine composition and quality and therefore it should be considered at harvest.     

Comparison of chemical composition and antioxidant capacity of commercially available blueberry and blackberry wines in Illinois

Moderate wine consumption may reduce the incidence of certain age-related chronic diseases such as heart disease, hypertension, metabolic disease, and neurodegenerative disease. Blueberry and blackberry wines commercially available in Illinois were evaluated for chemical and quality components relevant to consumers in order to study their potential health benefits. Total polyphenolic content was measured by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, total anthocyanin content by the pH differential test, and in vitro antioxidant capacity (AC) by the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) method. Color was measured using Hunter colorimetry and quality parameters including pH, °Brix, acid content, glucose-fructose, and percent alcohol were measured using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Blackberry wines (n= 6) had an average total polyphenolic content of 2212.5 ± 1090.3 mg ellagic acid equivalents (EAE) per liter, total anthocyanin content of 75.56 ± 70.44 mg/L, and AC of 26.39 ± 17.95 mmol trolox equivalents (TEs) per liter. Blueberry wines (n= 4) had an average total polyphenolic content of 1623.3 ± 645.5 mg EAE per liter, total anthocyanin content of 20.82 ± 12.14 mg/L, and AC of 21.21 ± 7.71 mmol TE per liter. Strong positive correlations were found between °Brix and glucose-fructose concentration (r= 0.90), total acid and malic acid (r= 0.90), and between total polyphenols and AC (r= 0.88). The results suggest that fruit wines made from blueberries and blackberries may have potential health applications and therefore could contribute to the economy of the wine industry. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The majority of wines are produced from grapes, but wine can also be produced from other fruits including blueberries and blackberries, which contain phenolic compounds that may contribute to human health. A comparative evaluation was conducted on commercial nongrape fruit wines and parameters related to their health benefits. Fruit wines made from blueberries and blackberries may have potential health applications and therefore could contribute to the economy of the wine industry.     

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT MACERATION TIMES AND PECTOLYTIC ENZYME ADDITION ON THE ANTHOCYANIN COMPOSITION OF VITIS VINIFERA CV. KALECIK KARASI WINES

Kalecik karasi is an important red grape cultivar for winemaking in Turkey. The effect of three different maceration times (3, 6 and 12 days) and addition of pectolytic enzyme (2 and 4 g/hL) on the anthocyanin and chemical composition of Kalecik karasi wines were studied. High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry coupled with diode array detection was used for analysis. Fourteen anthocyanin compounds were detected in wines. Major anthocyanins in all wines are malvidin-3-glucoside and its acylated esters. The results showed that increasing maceration time, especially with addition of enzymes, gives significant increases in anthocyanin contents. Moreover, the wines treated with enzymes had higher values in total phenolics, tannins, and color intensity than the control wines.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Anthocyanins are the most important polyphenols in red grapes and red wines with potential health benefits. Therefore, the first analysis of the anthocyanins contents of wine obtained from important turkish cv. Kalecik karasi using liquid-chromatography-mass spectrometry and the influence of different maceration times and addition of pectolytic enzyme on these important phenolic compounds are of interest for scientific literature, the wine industry as well as for the wine consumer.     

Comparison of fining red wines with purified grape pomace versus commercial fining agents: effect on wine chromatic characteristics and phenolic content

The large quantity of grape pomace (seeds, skin, and peduncle) produced during the winemaking process can be a problem and the search for procedures which could permit their valorisation is considered an important issue. This study investigates the use of purified grape pomace as a fining agent for reducing the level of some wine phenolic compounds, especially tannins. For this, purified grape pomace was applied to three young red wines of different phenolic composition and the results were compared with the effect of some common commercial fining agents. The results demonstrated that grape pomace can be used to decrease the wine tannin content with similar results to those obtained with casein, while also reducing anthocyanin content although to a similar extent to when bentonite is used. The effect of purified Monastrell grapes pomace is similar in the three different studied wines although it affected the most to wines with high monomeric anthocyanin content.     

Prediction of red wine colour and phenolic parameters from the analysis of its grape extract

Herein, the phenolic composition and colour attributes of red grapes extracts (obtained with a fast methodology) were correlated with those of their corresponding wines to predict the final quality properties of wines. The phenolic parameters were evaluated as total phenolic compounds (TPC), total anthocyanins (TA) and total condensed tannins (TCT), whereas the chromatic parameters were evaluated as colour intensity (CI), tonality (To), and the percentages of yellow, red and blue tones. All of them were determined by usual UV–Vis spectrophotometric methods. To get robust models, grapes of five red varieties were collected at three different ripening stages throughout the 2009 vintage. Good correlations between the results from grapes and wines were obtained, showing high regression coefficients and low prediction errors for TPC (R² = 0.929, RMSE = 5.99%), TA (R² = 0.953, RMSE = 7.23%) and CI (R² = 0.954, RMSE = 7.58), concluding that these wine phenolic properties can be predicted reliably from the extracts obtained with an optimised fast extraction method from grapes on the ripening controls along the maturity process.     

Application of high‐power ultrasounds during red wine vinification

Wine colour is one of the main organoleptic characteristics influencing its quality. It is of special interest in red vinifications due to the economic resources that wineries have to invest for the extraction of the phenolic compounds responsible for wine colour, compounds that are mainly located inside the skin cell vacuoles, where the volatile compounds are also found. The transfer of phenolic compounds from grapes to must during vinification is closely related to the type of grapes and the winemaking technique. During traditional winemaking, grapes are crushed and skin macerated for several days, with pumps overs to facilitate the colour extraction. To increase this extraction, some chemical (maceration enzymes) or physical technologies (thermovinification, cryomaceration, flash‐expansion) can be applied. In this work, a new methodology has been tested. This methodology consists in the application of high‐power ultrasounds to crushed grapes to increase the extraction of phenolic compounds. Crushed grapes were treated with this non‐thermal technology and vinified, with 3, 6 and 8 days of skin maceration time, and the results were compared with a control vinification, where crushed grapes were not subjected to any treatment and were skin macerated during 8 days. The wine chromatic characteristics (determined spectrophotometrically) and the individual phenolic compounds (anthocyanins and tannins, determined by HPLC) were followed during the maceration period, at the end of alcoholic fermentation and after two months in bottle. Also, the wine volatile compounds were determined by GC‐MS. The wines made with ultrasound‐treated grapes showed differences with the control wine, especially regarding total phenol content and tannin content. The wines elaborated with sonicated grapes and with only three days of skin maceration time presented similar concentration of anthocyanins and twice the concentration of tannins than control wines elaborated with 8 days of skin maceration.     

杨凌地区‘媚丽’葡萄的采收期确定

目的：通过比较杨凌地区‘媚丽’葡萄不同采收期的果实香气、葡萄酒香气和葡萄酒颜色指标,确定出该地区‘媚丽’葡萄酿造红葡萄酒的最适采收时间。方法：进入转色期后对‘媚丽’果实进行定期采样,测定其理化成熟、酚成熟和果实香气变化;选取最佳理化成熟时间和酚成熟时间采收的‘媚丽’葡萄进行酿酒实验,测定香气成分和颜色指标。结果：8月24日,细胞成熟指数为0.061,种子成熟指数为0.521,为最佳酚成熟时间,该时间采收的葡萄酿造的葡萄酒香气最丰富,共检测到41?种香气化合物,总量为471.75?mg/L,且葡萄酒颜色亮度和红色色调也最符合干红葡萄酒的要求;最佳理化成熟时间相比酚成熟晚4?d,但其葡萄酒香气和颜色指标相比8月24日都较差。结论：杨凌地区‘媚丽’葡萄在达到酚成熟时所酿造的葡萄酒香气和颜色最佳。     

Use of unripe grapes harvested during cluster thinning as a method for reducing alcohol content and pH of wine

Background and Aims: Deep red full‐bodied wines can only be obtained from grapes with complete phenolic maturity, which frequently produce wines with high pH and alcohol content. The present study focuses on a new procedure for simultaneously reducing pH and ethanol content. Methods and Results: Grapes from cluster thinning were used to produce a very acidic low‐alcohol wine. The wine was treated with high doses of charcoal and bentonite. This odourless and colourless wine was used to reduce pH and ethanol content of wine produced from grapes, which had reached complete phenolic maturity. The anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin concentrations, the mean degree of polymerisation and the monomeric composition of proanthocyanidin of reduced‐alcohol wines were similar to those of their corresponding controls. Since the pH was lower, the colour of the reduced‐alcohol wines was more intense. No significant differences were found between reduced‐alcohol wines and their controls by triangle sensory tests using dark glasses for two of the three studied cultivars. Conclusion: The procedure described allowed production of wines with reduced alcohol content and pH, while retaining similar phenolic content and sensory properties. Significance of the Study: The proposed procedure is easy to apply, does not require specific equipment and offers a means of addressing the problem of wines developing high ethanol and low pH as a result of over‐ripening of grapes.     

Anthocyanin fingerprint of clones of Tempranillo grapes and wines made with them

Background and Aims:  Different clones with distinctive enological characteristics have been identified in many grape cultivars, but data on differences in anthocyanin composition of clones of the same cultivar are scarce. Thus, it has been considered of interest to check changes in the anthocyanin fingerprint of six different clones of Tempranillo grapes grown in the same vineyard, and of wines made with them, over three consecutive years.
Methods and Results:  Data were submitted to different statistical procedures. Despite slight differences in the anthocyanin fingerprint of some clones (relative content of different anthocyanins analysed), variations from year to year were more important than differences in the anthocyanin profile of the clones considered. This fact was also observed when the content (mg/kg grapes) of those molecules was considered. Moreover, Tempranillo wines made with different clones could be classified by discriminant analysis, using the anthocyanin fingerprint or the levels (mg/L wine) of several anthocyanins as predictor variables, and the year grapes were collected as a classification factor.
Conclusions:  The anthocyanin fingerprint of six clones of Tempranillo grapes grown in the same vineyard and that of wines made with them over three consecutive years was affected mostly by weather conditions, despite slight differences in the anthocyanin fingerprint of some clones.
Significance of the Study:  This is the first report on the anthocyanin composition of different clones of Tempranillo grapes and of wines made with them, and indicates that anthocyanin fingerprint of Tempranillo wines depends mainly on agroclimatic factors, and not on genetic differences among clones.     

Anthocyanin profile in berry skins and fermenting must/wine, as affected by grape ripeness level of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz/R99

The release of anthocyanin compounds from berry skins into the wine is affected by several viticulture and oenological practices. Ripeness level seems to play a significant role. The study aimed to evaluate the extraction kinetics of individual anthocyanins from grape skins into wine under controlled conditions of small-scale vinification of Shiraz grapes, harvested at three ripeness levels (23, 25 and 28°Brix). The anthocyanin profile of intact berry skins, fermenting musts/wines and crushed skins during the period between crushing and pressing was analysed by HPLC. Ripeness level greatly impacted on the skin?/?juice ratio (ranging from 169?± 4.5?g?L^?1 at 23°B, 185?±?7.2?g?L^?1 at 25°B and 256?±?10.7?g?L^?1 at 28°B) and on grape anthocyanin concentration (ranging from 0.80?±?0.13?g?kg^?1 at 23°B, 0.78?±?0.07?g?kg^?1 at 25°B and 1.21?±?0.13?g?kg^?1 at 28°B) and profile (%) at harvest. In addition, it affected the rate and amount of individual anthocyanin extraction from skins into wine and their transformation during fermentation, consistent with the relevant chemical group classification (3-glucoside, 3-acetyl-glucoside, 3-p-coumaroyl-glucoside). At pressing, the anthocyanin concentration of the three wines was similar (319?mg?L^?1, on average), but the anthocyanin profile was different, particularly the ratio of 3-glucoside?/?3-p-coumaroyl-glucoside derivatives, which was on average 3.55 at 23°B and 25°B and 2.6 at 28°B. Viticultural choices, such as to harvest earlier or later, influencing the chemical and physical composition of the berries, may influence the extraction kinetics of individual anthocyanins and their destiny in the fermenting must, offering to winemakers different basic wines suitable for the production of different wine products. These findings are valuable to improve viticultural and oenological practices for Shiraz wine production, allowing the improvement of wine quality and the purposeful creation of different styles of wine.     

Winery Trial on Application of Pulsed Electric Fields for Improving Vinification of Garnacha Grapes

The potential of pulsed electric fields (PEF) to improve polyphenol extraction during winemaking was investigated in a winery trial. Four thousand five hundred kilograms of Garnacha grapes were treated with PEF (4.3 kV/cm, 60 μs) at a flow of 1,900 kg/h using a collinear treatment chamber. Wine obtained from PEF-treated grapes with a maceration time of 7 days was compared with wines obtained from untreated and PEF-treated grapes with the current maceration time (14 days) used by the winery. After 7 days of maceration, the color intensity, anthocyanin content, and polyphenol index in the tank containing grapes treated by PEF were 12.5, 25, and 23.5 % higher, respectively, than in the tank containing untreated grapes. However, after 14 days of maceration, no significant differences were observed between the control wine and the wine obtained from grapes treated by PEF for these three indices. An HPLC analysis indicated that the concentrations of major individual phenolic compounds were similar among the three wines at bottling. A sensory analysis revealed that the wine obtained from PEF-treated grapes macerated for 7 days was significantly preferable to the other two wines.     

Effect of sulphur dioxide and must extraction on colour,phenolic composition and sensory quality of red table wine

Red wines were made during 1992 from Vitis vinifera var Roriz grapes using a high and a low level of extraction and three levels of total sulphur dioxide (0, 75 and 150 mg SO₂ kg⁻¹). From this single experiment, the effects of total SO₂ and extraction on anthocyanin composition and colour were observed by HPLC, spectrophotometry and tristimulus colorimetry. High extraction produced a wine with more total pigments and total phenols than low extraction and increased the amount of organic acids extracted during fermentation. More anthocyanins were extracted with increasing SO₂ levels. On maturation, all wines lost colour and increased in brownness. Wines made without SO₂ browned more than the wines made with SO₂. The anthocyanins normally present in wines were all rapidly lost to trace levels at 24 months. Vitisin A, a more stable and highly coloured anthocyanin than malvidin 3-glucoside, showed a slower decrease in concentration than malvidin 3-glucoside and contributed significantly to the wine colour during aging. At the first analysis, the wines made without SO₂ had a higher percentage colour due to polymers than the wines made with SO₂. Polymerisation progressed during maturation, although the initial differences were maintained. Sensory analysis after 6 and 18 months storage by expert tasters revealed differences mainly related to the colour attributes, indicating that when wines are made using modern hygienic techniques, total SO₂ has a negligible effect on aroma and flavour attributes. © 1998 Society of Chemical Industry.