Reconciling user and project manager perceptions of IT project risk: a Delphi study1

Abstract. In an increasingly dynamic business environment characterized by fast cycle times, shifting markets and unstable technology, a business organization’s survival hinges on its ability to align IT capabilities with business goals. To facilitate the successful introduction of new IT applications, issues of project risk must be addressed, and the expectations of multiple stakeholders must be managed appropriately. To the extent that users and developers may harbour different perceptions regarding project risk, areas of conflict may arise. By understanding the differences in how users and project managers perceive the risks, insights can be gained that may help to ensure the successful delivery of systems. Prior research has focused on the project manager’s perspective of IT project risk. This paper explores the issue of IT project risk from the user perspective and compares it with risk perceptions of project managers. A Delphi study reveals that these two stakeholder groups have different perceptions of risk factors. Through comparison with a previous study on project manager risk perceptions, zones of concordance and discordance that must be reconciled are identified.     

Understanding the most critical skills for managing IT projects: A Delphi study of IT project managers

The skill requirements for project managers in information technology (IT) projects have not been widely studied in the past, especially in terms of their relative importance. We addressed this gap in the literature by conducting a Delphi study with 19 IT project managers (PMs). Among the list of 48 skills identified, our panelists selected 19 skills as being the most critical for IT PMs and then ranked them based on their relative importance. Follow-up interviews were conducted with selected panelists to gain insights into the importance of the top-ranked IT PM skills. We compare our results with two previous studies of IT PM skills and discuss the implications for research and practice.     

IT project managers' construction of successful project management practice: a repertory grid investigation

Although effective project management is critical to the success of information technology (IT) projects, little empirical research has investigated skill requirements for IT project managers (PMs). This study addressed this gap by asking 19 practicing IT PMs to describe the skills that successful IT PMs exhibit. A semi-structured interview method known as the repertory grid (RepGrid) technique was used to elicit these skills. Nine skill categories emerged: client management, communication, general management, leadership, personal integrity, planning and control, problem solving, systems development and team development. Our study complements existing research by providing a richer understanding of several skills that were narrowly defined (client management, planning and control, and problem solving) and by introducing two new skill categories that had not been previously discussed (personal integrity and team development). Analysis of the individual RepGrids revealed four distinct ways in which study participants combined skill categories to form archetypes of effective IT PMs. We describe these four IT PM archetypes – General Manager, Problem Solver, Client Representative and Balanced Manager – and discuss how this knowledge can be useful for practitioners, researchers and educators. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research.     

Spheres of It Project Complexity and It Project Manager Archetypes and Roles: A Case Study

ABSTRACT

Effective information technology (IT) project managers (PMs) are recognized as being essential for project success. However, little research has focused on the roles IT PMs must play. Utilizing a qualitative field study, we found 4 IT PM archetypes (checklist, technical lead, organizational process lead, and poly-synchronous) employed in practice. We discuss our findings regarding the assignment of multiple PMs in the presence of complex IT projects and provide organizations with practical inferences to consider.     

Exploring the relationship between software project duration and risk exposure: A cluster analysis

Software projects often fail. Thus it is important to find ways to ensure a successful outcome. One significant area is a better understanding of the relationship between the software project duration and risk exposure, as this helps project managers with pertinent information to be effective in managing risky projects. We addressed this need by adopting a cluster analysis technique to provide managers with insight into effective planning and control of their projects. The results not only revealed that risk exposures associated with user, requirement, planning & control and team risk dimensions were affected by project duration, but also showed how to manage software risks effectively through observing trends in the risk components. Based on our findings, project managers can adopt appropriate attitudes, skills, and practices to deal with risky areas more effectively rather than just identifying those software risks with which project managers should be concerned.     

Attention-shaping tools,expertise, and perceived control in IT project risk assessment

This study investigates the use of attention-shaping tools and their interactions with expertise and perceptions of control on individual decision-making about risks in IT projects. The paper uses data collected from 118 IT project experts and 140 novices through a role-playing experiment to provide several novel insights into how these three factors independently and collectively influence perception of risks and subsequent project continuation decisions. First, attention-shaping tools have a significant effect on both risk perception and decision-making. However, among individuals with low expertise, risk shaping tools exhibit a significant but dual-sided effect on risk perception. They help identify risks captured by the attention-shaping tool but simultaneously introduce blind spots in their risk awareness. Second, while individuals with greater expertise perceive significantly higher levels of risks relative to those with lower expertise, the level of expertise had generally no influence on decision-making. Third, we found that perceived control is a powerful factor influencing both risk perception and decision-making. Implications for research and practice are discussed along with potential avenues for future research.     

IT项目风险管理模式研究

在对风险管理的五个核心子过程和两个附加子过程研究的基础上,结合IT项目的特点和IT项目风险管理所处的阶段的分析,介绍了“P2I2=成功风险管理”的方程式,提出了由风险管理指南(G)、P/T过程模型(P)、风险状态图(S)组成的GPS风险管理框架。     

When a growth mindset can backfire and cause escalation of commitment to a troubled information technology project

This research focuses on information technology (IT) project managers' growth mindset concerning IT project management (PM) ability and investigates how such a mindset can promote escalation of commitment to a troubled IT project. Specifically, we suggest that the growth mindset of IT PM ability promotes prospective achievement motivation and can lead IT project managers to escalate their commitment to an IT project despite negative feedback suggesting that the project may not be completed successfully. Through a series of three experiments with 351 IT project managers, we obtained consistent support for our hypotheses suggesting that the growth mindset of IT PM ability promotes IT project escalation and this effect is partially mediated by anticipated regret about project failure and anticipated likelihood of project success. In addition, in the three experiments we found that when the project involves an unfamiliar technology the indirect effect of the growth mindset of IT PM ability through anticipated likelihood of project success is stronger than when the project involves a familiar technology.     

项目交互耦合网络演化

针对现有文献中较少考虑交互依赖关系对项目组合动态选择影响的问题,借鉴复杂网络理论,提出项目交互耦合网络概念,并从项目收益、资源成本、项目风险、项目状态、交互依赖关系及战略匹配程度等6个方面描述网络演化的影响要素.在此基础上,提出网络生成及调整规则,给出网络稳定状态定义,建立项目交互耦合网络.研究结果表明,与传统模型相比,项目交互耦合网络模型能得到更优的项目组合,能更有效地利用资源,规避风险,提高收益,同时,项目交互耦合网络能更好地了解项目结构,为项目组合管理提供支持.项目组合管理者应对那些节点介数大、聚集系数高的项目即核心项目进行重点扶持与保护,以防这些项目失败后引起其邻节点失败,甚至导致整个项目网络发生级联失败.     

A model of information systems development project performance

abstract. Performance in information systems development (ISD) projects can be critical to business success. But, while project performance has been the subject of much debate, there has been little empirical research into its determinants. A survey of IS projects in the UK and New Zealand is analysed to test hypotheses concerning performance in terms of both project completion and budget (time-cost) variances. Subsequently, a secondary analysis of the findings is used to build a more complete empirical model of project performance. The paper helps to develop the theory of IS development project performance and also has significant implications for practice. Discussion of the findings highlights the importance of project team dynamics, risk management, senior management support for strategic projects and user participation in ensuring successful IS project performance.     

Innovative Practices for IT Projects

Abstract

Based on 57 interviews with senior IT project managers in the UK Canada, USA and New Zealand, this article presents innovative practices they have developed during difficult projects. In our respondents' view, traditional project management methods and techniques are only a starting point. Through their quotes, they show how one has to be creative and entrepreneurial to lead projects successfully.     

The effects of optimistic and pessimistic biasing on software project status reporting

Anecdotal evidence suggests that project managers (PMs) sometime provide biased status reports to management. In our research project we surveyed PMs to explore possible motivations for bias, the frequency with which bias occurs, and the strength of the bias typically applied. We found that status reports were biased 60% of the time and that the bias was twice as likely to be optimistic as pessimistic. By applying these results to an information-theoretic model, we estimated that only about 10–15% of biased project status reports were, in fact, accurate and these occurred only when pessimistic bias offset project management status errors. There appeared to be no significant difference in the type or frequency of bias applied to high-risk versus low-risk projects. Our work should provide a better understanding of software project status reporting.     

Identifying and overcoming the challenges of implementing a project management office

With the ongoing challenge of successfully managing information technology (IT) projects, organizations are recognizing the need for greater project management discipline. For many organizations, this has meant ratcheting up project management skills, processes, and governance structures by implementing a project management office (PMO). While anecdotal evidence suggests that implementing a PMO can be quite difficult, few studies discuss the specific challenges involved, and how organizations can overcome them. To address this gap in existing knowledge, we conducted a Delphi study to (1) identify the challenges of implementing a PMO for managing IT projects, (2) rank these challenges in order of importance, (3) discover ways in which some organizations have overcome the top-ranked challenges, and (4) understand the role of PMO structure, metrics, and tools in the implementation of a PMO.We identified 34 unique challenges to implementing a PMO and refined this list to 13 challenges that our Delphi panelists considered most important. The top-three challenges were (1) rigid corporate culture and failure to manage organizational resistance to change, (2) lack of experienced project managers (PMs) and PMO leadership, and (3) lack of appropriate change management strategy. Through follow-up interviews with selected panelists, we identified a series of actions that can be taken to overcome these challenges including having a strong PMO champion, starting small and demonstrating the value of the PMO, obtaining support from opinion leaders, hiring an experienced program manager who understands the organization, bringing the most talented PMs into the PMO implementation team, adopting a flexible change management strategy, and standardizing processes prior to PMO implementation. The interviews were also used to better understand the role of PMO structure, metrics, and tools. In terms of PMO structure, we found that ‘light’ PMOs were more likely to be implemented successfully. Most organizations eschew formal metrics, instead relying on subjective indicators of PMO success. Lastly, it appears that PMO tools are difficult to implement unless a project management culture has been established.     

证据理论在软件项目风险分析中的应用

软件项目由于其产品的智力密集性和项目的复杂性,在开发过程中,进行风险分析时不同于一般项目有很多客观的指标可供参考,更多地是借助于专家的意见,从而使得专家意见的综合成为软件项目风险分析中一个急需解决的问题。给出了一个基于证据理论的软件项目风险分析模型,通过引入模糊评语集及该集合上的模糊效用值,使用Dempster规则更好地融合各个专家的意见,从而得出了更加合理的风险概率和风险损失评价值。该方法强调了关键专家意见在决策中的重要性,较好地解决了分析结果过于依赖专家选择的问题,从而减少了风险因素量化的复杂性,为风险控制策略的制定提供了依据。并通过算例加以验证。     

Modeling and risk analysis of virtual project team through project life cycle with fuzzy approach

The ongoing revolutions in e-business and progresses of IT and communication, has resulted in the increasing number of companies with formal virtual project teams. In such situation, Uncertainty analysis gains more importance, being conducted within risk management framework. In this paper, based on the six phases of risk management procedure in PMBOK methodology, a risk management process in virtual projects is introduced. In qualitative analysis phase (of PMBOK methodology), the most effective factors of project management in virtual project teams are prioritized. In quantitative analysis phase, for the very first time, “Fuzzy Linear Programming Model” is employed to assess project risks based on project life cycle. Also given time and budget constraints, a method for developing appropriate strategies of reacting to each risk factor is introduced. We use GAMS (General Algebraic Modeling System) to select these strategies. Finally, we test our model in a numerical example, as evidence.     

A senior executive end-user framework

Senior executives make decisions about their organization's information technology (IT) budgets that often involve substantial expenditure. Yet, in terms of their own competence in using IT, there is evidence to suggest that they may not be the best members of the organization to make such decisions. This paper reports on a study of 85 senior executives across 16 large organizations and the depth and breath of applications these executives use to support them at an individual level. The research design and methodologies were based on the principles of grounded theory. The primary source of data collection was in-depth interviews. A number of end-user frameworks have been developed by previous authors; however, most are more pertinent to middle and junior managers. Based on the analysis of the data from this study an end-user framework is proposed that is more appropriate for senior executives.     

IT managers’ vs. IT auditors’ perceptions of risks: An actor–observer asymmetry perspective

With the growing role of information technology (IT), many organizations struggle with IT-related risks. Both IT managers and IT auditors are involved in assessing, monitoring, and reporting IT risks, but this does not necessarily mean that they share the same views. In this study, we draw upon the actor–observer asymmetry perspective to understand differences in IT managers’ vs. IT auditors’ perceptions of risks. Through a quasi-experiment with 76 employees of a financial institution, we found that IT managers and IT auditors showed the expected actor–observer differences. Implications for both research and practice are discussed.     

Opportunities and risks of software-as-a-service: Findings from a survey of IT executives

IT providers have heralded software-as-a-service (SaaS) as an excellent complement to on-premises software addressing the shortcomings of previous on-demand software solutions such as application service provision (ASP). However, although some practitioners and academics emphasize the opportunities that SaaS offers companies, others already predict its decline due to the considerable risk involved in its deployment. Ours is the first study to analyze the opportunities and risks associated with adopting SaaS as perceived by IT executives at adopter and non-adopter firms. We first developed a research model grounded in an opportunity-risk framework, which is theoretically embedded in the theory of reasoned action. Subsequently, we analyzed the data collected through a survey of 349 IT executives at German companies. Our findings suggest that in respect to both SaaS adopters and non-adopters, security threats are the dominant factor influencing IT executives' overall risk perceptions. On the other hand, cost advantages are the strongest driver affecting IT executives' perceptions of SaaS opportunities. Furthermore, we find significant differences between adopters' and non-adopters' perceptions of specific SaaS risks and opportunities, such as performance and economic risks as well as quality improvements, and access to specialized resources. Our study provides relevant findings to improve companies' assessment of SaaS offerings. It also offers SaaS providers insights into the factors that should be prioritized or avoided when offering SaaS services to companies at different stages of their technology adoption lifecycle.     

企业信息化项目的风险管理

信息化项目的风险管理决定了整个项目甚至整个企业信息化建设的成败,本文对信息化项目所面临的风险进行分析调研,并提出行之有效的风险管理措施,旨在帮助企业正确合理地应对信息化项目所面临的风险,从而保障企业信息化建设的顺利开展。     

How experienced project managers assess risk

Software development projects, given their diverse and abstract nature, offer unique challenges and risks. Although a substantial body of literature has been written to address project risk management, my experience in the field led me to question whether this literature accurately mirrors the concerns of real-world project managers. To confirm my suspicions, I surveyed 14 experienced application systems developers, all located in Ireland. All survey participants manage custom-built, software-intensive application development projects that originate from external clients. The survey focused on three major areas: (1) Which characteristics of the customer, the application, and so on, do experienced software project managers consider important when planning new development projects for new, external clients? (2) How do these characteristics relate to accepted software project risk drivers? (3) Do most project managers characterize new projects in generally the same way, or do different project managers use different perceptual lenses when viewing new projects? This survey of a homogenous group of project managers revealed a surprising diversity of risk management concerns