Decreasing prejudice by increasing discrimination.

Assessed the effects of mindfulness (active distinction making) training on the perception of and reaction to handicapped children. In a 2?×?2 factorial design, 47 6th graders received either a high- or low-mindfulness treatment and viewed slides that were either all of nonhandicapped people or consisted primarily of handicapped individuals. Mindfulness was manipulated by asking questions of Ss concerning a handicapped or nonhandicapped target person and the target person's professional skills, situational skills, causation of events, and role of flexibility. The high-mindfulness treatment, especially when bolstered by explicit reference to the handicapped, revealed that teaching Ss to be more differentiated (i.e., more mindful) resulted in the view that handicaps are function-specific and not people-specific. Ss in this group were less likely to inappropriately discriminate for or against the handicapped target. Also noted was the finding that Ss in this group were less likely to avoid a handicapped other. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trivialization: the forgotten mode of dissonance reduction.

Trivialization as a mode of dissonance reduction and the conditions under which it is likely to occur were explored in 4 studies. Study 1 tested and supported the hypothesis that when the preexisting attitude is made salient, participants will trivialize the dissonant cognitions rather than change their attitudes. Study 2 tested and supported the hypothesis that following a counterattitudinal behavior, participants will choose the first mode of dissonance reduction provided for them, whether it is trivialization or attitude change. Study 3 tested and supported the hypothesis that following a counterattitudinal behavior, the typical self-affirmation treatment leads to trivialization. Study 4 demonstrated that providing a trivializing frame by making an important issue salient also encourages trivialization rather than attitude change even when there was no opportunity for self-affirmation. The implications for cognitive dissonance theory and research are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive dissonance reduction as constraint satisfaction.

A constraint satisfaction neural network model (the consonance model) simulated data from the two major cognitive dissonance paradigms of insufficient justification and free choice. In several cases, the model fit the human data better than did cognitive dissonance theory. Superior fits were due to the inclusion of constraints that were not part of dissonance theory and to the increased precision inherent to this computational approach. Predictions generated by the model for a free choice between undesirable alternatives were confirmed in a new psychological experiment. The success of the consonance model underscores important, unforeseen similarities between what had been formerly regarded as the rather exotic process of dissonance reduction and a variety of other, more mundane psychological processes. Many of these processes can be understood as the progressive application of constraints supplied by beliefs and attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquisition of conservation through cognitive dissonance.

In 2 experiments conservers, transitional conservers, and nonconservers were directed to pretend that their judgments and explanations to a series of conservation problems were the opposite of what they really were. Ss were 210 children from nursery school, kindergarten, and 1st–3rd grades. In both studies nonconservers and transitional Ss made large and significant gains in conservation in comparison with appropriate control groups and between pre- and posttests. Conservers did not regress. Exp II, moreover, indicated that conservation gains were stable and that the newly acquired conservation was not extinguished by a 2nd dissonance treatment in which Ss gave nonconservation responses. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simulated organizational choice: Postdecision dissonance reduction and self-perception.

Tested the subsequent effect of choice between 2 equally attractive organizations on changes in their overall attractiveness and in the attractiveness of their instrumentality for the attainment of job goals (motivators and hygienes). Exp. I tested predictions from dissonance theory with 34 adult male students. Mean attractiveness of the chosen organizations increased and that of the unchosen organizations decreased significantly from before to after choice. Motivators, as compared with hygienes, significantly increased in attractiveness for the chosen organizations. Results make the motivation-hygiene taxonomy untenable in terms of its instrumentality for postdecisional accommodation to organizational choice. Exp. II enlisted an additional 74 Ss and controls to test the self-perception model as an alternative interpretation of dissonance phenomena. Results parallel dissonance predictions for changes in attractiveness of the chosen but not the unchosen organization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Denial of responsibility: A new mode of dissonance reduction.

Denial of responsibility as a mode of dissonance reduction and the conditions under which it is likely to occur were explored in 3 experiments. Two experiments tested and supported the hypothesis that following a counterattitudinal behavior, participants prefer the mode of reduction made available to them first, regardless of whether it is attitude change, trivialization, or denial of responsibility. The 3rd experiment tested and supported the hypothesis that denial of responsibility reduces the negative affective state induced by dissonance. The mechanism of denial of responsibility in dissonance reduction is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison and dissonance reduction in self-evaluation.

This study is designed to compare and test some predictions about the self-evaluation process based on the theories of Festinger and Rotter. Contrary to suggestions by Rotter, it was found that minimal goals were no more resistant to change than were expected scores. Changes in minimal goals and expected scores tended to occur so as to minimize discrepancies with actual performance, and thus reduce dissonance in accordance with Festinger's theory. Consistent with Festinger's theory of social comparison processes, it was found that individual's self-evaluations are only influenced by reference group norms in the absence of a more objective criterion for self-evaluation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aversive conditioning: Learning or dissonance reduction?

Hypothesized that the theory of cognitive dissonance could account for the results of aversive conditioning therapy. 30 male smokers, who desired to stop the habit, were assigned to 1 of 3 conditions. The conditioning (C) group received shock contingent on smoking; the pseudoconditioning (PC) group received shock in an irrelevant situation; and the control (Con) group replicated the C group treatment, but received no shock. All groups reduced smoking significantly. Results are consistent with the hypothesis. Factors of belief, expectancy, and cognitive consistency are important in behavior therapies and process studies are required to substantiate theoretical assumptions about why psychotherapies are successful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences, self-presentation, and cognitive dissonance: Their concurrent operation in forced compliance.

Attempted to separate and assess the contributions of cognitive dissonance and self-presentation to the forced-compliance effect. Individual differences in self-presentation were assessed using the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Snyder's Self-Monitoring Scale, and the Other-Deception Questionnaire. In Exp I, with 33 male undergraduates, the experimental group was induced to lie about a boring task and rate task enjoyability on pencil-and-paper and bogus-pipeline measures. One control group did not lie about the task but gave both types of rating. A 2nd control group lied about the task and then gave 2 pencil-and-paper ratings. Results indicate that dissonance reduction and self-presentation contributed independently to the forced-compliance effect. Findings were replicated in Exp II with 52 male and female Ss. The observed pattern of individual differences ruled out alternative explanations. The J. T. Tedeschi et al (1971) theory of self-presentation was supported over M. J. Rosenberg's (1965) formulation. Several theories integrating the self-presentation and dissonance views are discussed. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reduction of cognitive dissonance through task enhancement and effort expenditure.

This study tested the hypothesis that task performance can facilitate dissonance reduction. It was predicted that dissonance induced by compliance with a negatively valued task setter would be reduced by task enhancement and high effort expenditure. Increased effort was assumed to aid dissonance reduction by validating the initial enhanced valuation of the task. A concept-attainment task was given to 50 undergraduate students who "chose" to comply with an inconsiderate E for no experimental credit (NC), and to 50 students who received credit (C). The NC group persisted longer on an insoluble problem, completed more trials, scored fewer penalty points, and forgot less information than the C group. They also maintained a more performance-anchored level of aspiration and rated the experiment as more interesting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Private and public self-attention, resistance to change, and dissonance reduction.

Three experiments with 257 undergraduates investigated the effects of self-directed attention on dissonance reduction. Ss were induced to write counterattitudinal essays. In Exp I, mirror presence during either an attitude premeasure or the counterattitudinal behavior led to reduced attitude change. Exp II explored whether the discrepancy between present and prior research was due to the manner in which self-attention was manipulated. Ss were exposed either to a mirror or to a TV camera and were asked to report both their post-behavioral attitudes and their perceptions of their counterattitudinal behavior. Consistent with the results of the 1st study, Ss in the mirror condition again showed the least amount of attitude change. They did, however, reduce dissonance by altering their perceptions of their behavior. Consistent with prior findings, Ss in the camera condition tended to reduce dissonance by changing their attitudes, but did not distort their behavior. Exp III conceptually replicated these results by selecting Ss on the basis of their chronic levels of private and public self-consciousness. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization and maintenance of appropriate behavior through self-control.

8 7-11 yr old disruptive children attended an after school reading tutorial program 1 hr a day for 72 days. After baseline, Ss evaluated their academic and social behavior. A token program was instituted and then modified to include the following procedures: (a) Points and backup reinforcers were made contingent upon accurate self-ratings; (b) the requirement of accurately matching teacher ratings was faded until the children had complete control over point distribution; and (c) backup reinforcers were also faded and eliminated. While there was a lack of generalization of appropriate social behavior to the regular classroom situation, generalization was demonstrated in the 15-min control period of every class, and maintenance was demonstrated in the final week of the program after all backup reinforcers were withdrawn. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of self-presentation and choice in cognitive dissonance under forced compliance: Necessary or sufficient causes?

In 3 experiments, 114 undergraduates performed counterattitudinal behaviors under choice or no-choice conditions in which the behaviors were public or private and anonymous. Results indicate that self-presentation and choice should be considered as sufficient but not necessary causes of cognitive dissonance. In the absence of self-presentation (private condition), manipulations of perceived choice affected attitude change. In the absence of choice, self-presentation produced attitude change. Supplementary findings suggest that the effects of choice and self-presentation on dissonance were additive and that attitude change was maintained across different audiences among Ss who believed the 2 audiences to be unrelated. The implication that neither choice nor self-presentation is necessary for the occurrence of attitude change suggests a view of cognitive dissonance as multiply determined. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antireligious prejudice: Response to Gartner.

Questions the experimental design employed and use of some terms in the work of J. D. Gartner (see record 1987-05379-001), but concludes that Gartner's findings that clinical psychology graduate programs are reluctant to admit religious applicants are timely and relevant in the controversy associated with the attempted rapprochement between psychology and religion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deconstructing prejudice: A Levinasian alternative.

Presents an alternative to the traditional explanations of prejudice. Prejudice, according to E. Levinas (1969), becomes a possibility of pre-judgment, but only after one takes account of the moral obligation one has to others with whom one shares the world. Consistent with Levinas, it is proposed that the traditional problems of prejudice occur only when a person or group of people refuse to find definition of their humanity in the face of others with whom they share the world. Thus, to build a conceptual framework, psychologists need to elucidate those ways in which people define and articulate their own humanity by responding to others in light of the moral obligation they have to others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

I'm a hypocrite, but so is everyone else: Group support and the reduction of cognitive dissonance.

The impact of social support on dissonance arousal was investigated from a social identity view of dissonance theory. This perspective is seen as augmenting current conceptualizations of dissonance theory by predicting when normative information will impact on dissonance arousal and by indicating the availability of identity-related strategies of dissonance reduction. An experiment was conducted to induce feelings of hypocrisy under conditions of behavioral support or nonsupport. Group salience was either high or low, or individual identity was emphasized. As predicted, participants with no support from the salient in-group exhibited the greatest need to reduce dissonance through attitude change and reduced levels of group identification. Results were interpreted in terms of self being central to the arousal and reduction of dissonance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fanning the flames of prejudice: The influence of specific incidental emotions on implicit prejudice.

Three experiments examined the impact of incidental emotions on implicit intergroup evaluations. Experiment 1 demonstrated that for unknown social groups, two negative emotions that are broadly applicable to intergroup conflict (anger and disgust) both created implicit bias where none had existed before. However, for known groups about which perceivers had prior knowledge, emotions increased implicit prejudice only if the induced emotion was applicable to the outgroup stereotype. Disgust increased bias against disgust-relevant groups (e.g., homosexuals) but anger did not (Experiment 2); anger increased bias against anger-relevant groups (e.g., Arabs) but disgust did not (Experiment 3). Consistent with functional theories of emotion, these findings suggest that negative intergroup emotions signal specific types of threat. If the emotion-specific threat is applicable to prior expectations of a group, the emotion ratchets up implicit prejudice toward that group. However, if the emotion-specific threat is not applicable to the target group, evaluations remain unchanged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional expression and the reduction of motivated cognitive bias: Evidence from cognitive dissonance and distancing from victims' paradigms.

Two experiments tested whether expression of emotions from which motivated cognitive biases presumably provide protection would reduce the extent of such biases. In Study 1, it was hypothesized that expressing any tension produced by writing a counterattitudinal essay would reduce the extent of dissonance-reducing attitude change. To test this hypothesis, Ss were induced to write an essay arguing for higher tuition. High-choice Ss were either encouraged to express their emotions, to suppress them, or to do neither. As expected, high-choice-express Ss exhibited the least attitude change. Study 2 tested the hypothesis that expressing fear of cancer would reduce the extent of defensive distancing from cancer patients, but expressing sympathy would not. Although control Ss clearly distanced from cancer patients, fear-expression Ss did not. Implications for understanding the role of affect in defense are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuating the positive: Eliciting generalized compliance from children through activity-oriented requests.

Investigated the effectiveness of activity-oriented requests as a technique for enhancing children's generalized subsequent compliance with other adult requests; 54 nursery school children, 3.7–5.9 yrs old, were studied. In Session 1, experimental Ss were asked to perform a chore and encouraged to make this task more enjoyable by either (a) generating a series of subgoals against which their own performance could be measured or (b) imagining the task to be part of a larger fantasy of inherent interest. Some Ss were offered a choice of particular goal-setting or fantasy-transformation strategies; others were assigned specific strategies. Two weeks later, Ss were asked to perform another task by a 2nd experimenter who was blind to the results of Session 1. Compared to appropriate controls, Ss who had been assigned either a goal-setting or a fantasy-transformation strategy showed increased compliance to the later adult request. Ss who chose their own strategies did not show enhanced compliance. Further analyses suggested that these effects on generalized compliance during Session 2 did not depend on differences in prior behavior during Session 1. Implications for enhancing children's compliance in home and school settings are discussed. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)