Empathy research: Some methodological considerations.

Calls for a systematic inquiry into the construct of empathy and suggests that improved definitional and methodological consideration in research will lead to more persuasive findings about the alleged relations between empathy and client outcomes. A category system is proposed for analyzing methodological deficiencies. The system is applied to 4 different measures of empathy and 3 studies having different findings but purportedly similar designs. Renewed attention to the construct of empathy is advocated. (93 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal measures of vocalization: Some methodological considerations.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 48(2) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2008-10973-001). The copyright notice was inadvertently omitted. The notice that should have appeared on the first page of this article is provided in the erratum.] Five studies—with 164 university students, 56 military personnel, and 4 elderly persons—examined methodological issues associated with temporal measures of vocalization. The simple measures of phonation, silence, and interrupt and measures of silence relative to phonation were found to be sensitive to task and emotional factors and were stable across experience. A procedure for analyzing interviews is presented, and potential applications of the temporal measures are discussed. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Scale: Some methodological considerations.

40 3rd and 5th graders were administered the 1st 3 dilemmas of Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Scale. One group received the scale 2 wks after first administration, while another group received a multiple-choice variant of the scale. Data analyses revealed low test–retest reliability for scores attained on the 3 dilemmas together as well as individually. Scores on items within each dilemma were found to be low and generally nonsignificant. Ss who received the multiple choice variant of the scale scored at significantly higher moral levels than did those who received the typical verbal production version of the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal conditioning of two response classes: Some methodological considerations.

The capacity to condition verbalizations of an interviewee was seen to be related to S's awareness of what was going on but independent of such variables as the age, sex, vocabulary level, (Taylor) anxiety level, and word rate of Ss. Specific content could be successfully conditioned, particularly those words which related to people; such words as plural nouns were unaffected by the reinforcement procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk mechanisms in development: Some conceptual and methodological considerations.

This commentary focuses on several issues concerning research on risk mechanisms that are raised in this special issue. First, we focus on what marks this special issue as distinctive in the ways in which risk research is conducted. Second, several general issues in research are highlighted, including sample characteristics, measurement strategies, specificity of risk factors and risk mechanisms, categorical vs. dimensional approaches to samples and measures, and definitions of development and transitions. Third, the challenges for integrating alternative models of risk are discussed, with special references to research on genetic and environmental influences on developmental psychopathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological considerations for the behavioral genetic analysis of work attitudes.

In a recent article, R. D. Arvey et al (see record 1989-25020-001) argued that about 30% of the variance in job satisfaction was accounted for by workers' genetic make-ups. To demonstrate this, they examined a group of monozygotic twins who had been reared apart. Although this method has been used widely in behavioral genetic research, it contains many hidden threats to validity, which could render suspect numerical estimates of either environmental or genetic effects. We examine some of the threats associated with this type of twin research, emphasizing the problems involved in quantifying the heritability of job satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spurious estimation of validity coefficients in composite samples: Some methodological considerations.

In much test validation research, composite validation samples are formed by aggregating subsamples containing predictor and criterion data from different geographic locations, different positions, or different jobs. Typically, the subsamples are treated as random partitions in spite of the fact that mean differences on the predictor, criterion, or both variables may exist. This article demonstrates that predictor or criterion mean differences may lead to over- or underestimation of the population validity coefficient, depending on the profile of mean differences on both variables. Referencing the aggregation bias literature, this article presents equations that explain the effect of mean differences across partitions of the validation sample in terms of a modification of the partial correlation. Solutions to the problem are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Testing the "side-bet theory" of organizational commitment: Some methodological considerations.

Two studies were conducted to demonstrate that both the instruments used to measure commitment—those scales developed by G. Ritzes and H. M. Trice (1969) and by L. G. Hrebiniak and J. A. Alutto (see record 1973-12150-001)—and the side-bet indexes (age and tenure) used in previous tests of the side-bet theory of H. S. Becker are inappropriate for that purpose. In Study 1, 64 undergraduate scenarios in which an employee was described as being high or low in continuance commitment and high or low in affective commitment and responded to several commitment instruments as they felt the employee would respond. As expected, the continuance commitment manipulation accounted for a relatively small portion of the variance in scores on the 2 commitment scales, whereas the affective commitment manipulation accounted for a substantially larger portion. The continuance manipulation did, however, account for a large portion of the variance in scores on an author-developed continuance commitment scale (CCS). In Study 2, 130 university employees completed the same commitment instruments. As predicted, the 2 commitment scales correlated significantly with measures of affective commitment but not with the CCS. Also as predicted, age and tenure correlated with the commitment scales and with the affective commitment measures but not with the CCS. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical judgment and affective disorders.

Addresses 3 limitations of previous work on counselor clinical judgment by the 1st author et al (see record 1983-11141-001) and R. F. Haase et al (see record 1983-26503-001). Results of the study of 20 practicing counselors suggest that the judgment process used by experienced counselors to make diagnoses of affective disorders differs depending on the type of diagnostic judgment and that attributions may play a role in at least certain types of judgments. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the development of contingency theories of leadership: Some methodological considerations and a possible alternative.

Suggests that the continuing difficulty in replicating contingency leadership theory predictions stems from little realized assumptions inherent in the approach. Some assumptions involve, in essence, knowledge of parameter values prior to the research. An alternative strategy is offered. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seasonal affective disorders

Seasonal affective disorder is a pattern of major depressive episodes that occur and remit with changes in seasons. It may be seen in major depressive or bipolar disorders, as described in the Diagnostic and Statistical. Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). The most recognized form of seasonal affective disorder, "winter depression," is characterized by recurrent episodes of depression, hypersomnia, augmented appetite with carbohydrate craving, and weight gain that begin in the autumn and continue through the winter months. Physicians have many options for treating seasonal affective disorder. While questions regarding the validity of seasonal affective disorder as a syndrome and the mechanism of action of light therapy continue to be investigated, the established effectiveness of light therapy in patients with winter depression supports the usefulness of assessment for this seasonal pattern and consideration of light therapy as an option in addition to existing treatment choices.     

Some history of a methodological rediscovery.

Comments on the article by S. M. Kosslyn et al (see record 2002-12932-001). The article extended to biopsychological research an important principle the authors traced to B. J. Underwood (1975): Systematic study of individual differences in a relationship between two or more dependent and independent variables can contribute greatly to the extension of psychological theory. R. R. Holt calls attention to several earlier discoveries of the same point. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological pitfalls in attributional research.

Points out a number of methodological errors in attributional research. They include failure of the causal manipulation, insufficient sampling of causal alternatives, inaccurate classification of causes on various dimensions, prediction of expectancy of success rather than expectancy change, use of preference as an indicator of affect, insufficient representation of affects, and the use of dependent variables, such as exam performance, that provide inappropriate testing grounds for attribution theory. Some of these errors are documented with simple demonstration experiments. In addition, methodological suggestions are offered. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Phototherapy. An alternative for seasonal affective disorders or sleep disorders

Although clinicians have observed for centuries that som depressed patients become worse in the winter, it was first in 1984 that Norman Rosenthal and co-workers described a syndrome which they called seasonal affective disorder (SAD), characterised by winter depression, lethargy and a craving for carbohydrate. Phototherapy was proved to be an effective treatment right from the start. Recently it has been reported that not only depression, but also panic disorder and obsessive compulsive disorders may exhibit a seasonal pattern and thus benefit from phototherapy. Phototherapy may also benefit patients suffering from "sun-downing", a syndrome of confusion and agitation in the evening in persons with Alzheimer's disease. Based on the observation that bright light may both elevate brain serotonin and ameliorate sleep abnormalities, the authors report the results of phototherapy for treatment of non-seasonal depressions, either alone or in combination with antidepressants or sleep deprivation.     

Theoretical and methodological considerations in the age-job satisfaction relationship.

Research investigating the form and magnitude of the relationship between age and job satisfaction has produced mixed and generally inconclusive results. Potential explanations for such results relate to the largely atheoretical nature of research in this area as well as the inconsistent application of proper statistical and methodological controls. Our study addresses both areas of concern in an effort to permit more accurate and informed interpretations of both the form and magnitude of the age–job satisfaction relationship. We conducted hierarchical polynomial regression analyses, controlling for three different tenure measures, to examine several forms of the age–job satisfaction relationship for an all-female sample of registered nurses (N?=?81). Results supported both a U-shaped and a linear relationship between age and job satisfaction. Implications for both theory and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathways linking affective disturbances and physical disorders.

Comorbidity of psychological and physical disorders is substantial. This article presents a broad theoretical framework for identifying factors that contribute to and maintain comorbid conditions. The authors propose heuristic models of how co-occurrences of psychological and physical disorders are developed and maintained. The models specify biological, behavioral, cognitive, and social pathways that may account for comorbidity. Although the authors' discussion of psychological disorders is limited to the role of affective disturbances (subclinical negative moods as well as mood and affective disorders), the pathways they identify are thought to contribute to co-occurrences of other psychological disorders and physical disease as well. The authors emphasize that pathways linking comorbid states are bi-directional and that operative pathways differ depending on the specific affective response, illness behavior, disease, or disease stage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some methodological issues in semantic differential research.

A review of methodological research on the semantic differential (SD) shows that: (a) metric assumptions in SD scales are in some ways inaccurate but adequate for many applications; (b) biased errors may arise because of social desirability effects or scale-checking styles; (c) a substantial portion of variation in SD ratings is due to individual differences and temporal variations in responses; (d) basic dimensions of average response on SD scales are evaluation, potency, and activity, and no extensive proliferation of basic dimensions beyond these can be expected; (e) there are individual differences in the size and character of the semantic space; (f) the appearance of scale-concept interactions frequently is a methodological artifact which would not occur in adequately designed studies; and (g) the existence of real scale-concept interactions demands tailoring the SD to different stimulus domains, but these studies must be carried out with care. (58 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociobiology: Some general considerations.

Sociobiology (SB) is a reactionary ideology posing as a scientific synthesis between biology and sociology, between organismic evolution and socially organized behavior. SB is virtually cribbed out of social Darwinism. SB erroneously transfers genetic determinations of physical characteristics to their activities or to the behavior of the whole organism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tension-reducing effects of alcohol: Further evidence and some methodological considerations.

Studied the relations among alcohol consumption, self-reported distress, and muscular tension in 4 male 28-45 yr old male chronic alcoholics. Ss were permitted free access to beverage alcohol and were monitored for blood alcohol level, electromyographic response, and subjective distress every other hour of their waking day for 12 days. Pearson product-moment correlations revealed (a) significant negative correlations between blood alcohol level and electromyographic response, (b) a significant positive correlation between blood alcohol level and subjective distress, and (c) no relation between electromyographic response and subjective distress. Results, while supporting a tension-reduction model of the effects of alcohol, reveal a complex interaction between alcohol consumption, subjective distress, and muscular tension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)